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C A Bottolfsen was an American politician. He was a Republican governor of Idaho from 1943 until 1945.
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C A Robins was an American politician. He was a Republican governor of Idaho from 1947 until 1951.
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C Ben Ross was an American politician. He was a Democratic governor of Idaho from 1931 until 1937.
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C C Moore was an American politician. He was a Republican governor of Idaho from 1923 until 1927.
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C Douglass Buck was an American politician. He was a Republican governor of Delaware from 1929 until 1937.
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C Elmer Anderson was an American politician. He was a Republican governor of Minnesota from 1951 until 1955.
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C Farris Bryant was an American politician. He was a Democratic governor of Florida from 1961 until 1965.
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C H Brogden was an American politician. He was a Republican governor of North Carolina from 1874 until 1877.
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C J Rogers was an American politician. He was a Republican governor of Wyoming from 1953 until 1955.
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C Norman Brunsdale was an American politician. He was a Republican governor of New Dakota from 1951 until 1957.
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C William O'Neill was an American politician. He was a Republican governor of Ohio from 1957 until 1959.
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Cadet is the title given to a younger or youngest son, and also a junior male member of a noble family.
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A cadger was formerly someone who carried produce to market.
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Cadwalader was an ancient king of Gwynedd, succeeding his father as king in 634. He heroically defended Wales against the Saxons before his death in 664.
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Cadwallader Colden Washburn was an American politician. He was born in 1818 and died in 1882. He was the brother of Elihu Washburne. He settled in Wisconsin as a lawyer and financier. From 1855, to 1861 he was Congressman from Wisconsin. He was a delegate to the Peace Conference of 1861. In the American Civil War he commanded a corps, was major-general of volunteers, and served in the West. He was again a Republican Congressman 1867 until 1871, and Governor of Wisconsin from 1872 until 1874.
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Cadwallader Colden was the first surveyor-general of New York. He was born in 1688 and died in 1776. He was an ardent royalist, was president of the council in 1760 and Lieutenant-Governor in 1761, took an active part in founding the American Philosophical Society, and was a correspondent of the prominent scientific men of his time, including Linnaeus and Benjamin Franklin.
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Caedmon was an Anglo-Saxon writer. He lived about the end of the 7th century. He was originally a tenant, or perhaps only a cowherd, on the abbey lands at Whitby, but afterwards was received into the monastery. His chief work (if it can all be attributed to him) consists of paraphrases of portions of the Scriptures, in Anglo-Saxon verse, the first part of which bears striking resemblances to Milton's narrative in Paradise Lost.
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Caedwallo was king of the West Saxons in 685. He went to Rome to expiate his deeds of blood and died there.
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Caesar was a title, originally a surname of the Julian family at Rome, which, after being dignified in the person of the dictator Caius Julius Caesar, was adopted by the successive Roman emperors, and latterly came to be applied to the heir-presumptive to the throne. The title was perpetuated in the Kaiser of the Holy Roman Empire, and in the Czar of the Russian emperors.
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Caesar Rodney was an American politician. He was born in 1728 and died in 1784. He was a delegate from Delaware to the Stamp Act Congress at New York in 1765. He was Speaker of the Delaware Assembly from 1769 to 1774, and of the Delaware popular Convention in 1774. He was a member of the Continental Congress from 1774 to 1776, was a member of the committee to draft a statement of rights and grievances, and signed the American Declaration of Independence. He served under General George Washington in the Delaware campaign from 1776 to 1777, and was president of Delaware from 1778 to 1782.
Caesar A Rodney was an American politician. He was born in 1772 and died in 1824. He represented Delaware in the US Congress as a Democrat from 1803 to 1805. He was Attorney-General in Jefferson's and Madison's Cabinets from 1807 to 1811. As commissioner to South America in 1817 he advocated the recognition of the Spanish-American republics. He was a US Congressman from 1821 to 1822 and a US Senator from 1822 to 1823. He was appointed Minister to the Argentine provinces in 1823.
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Caewlin was a son of Cynric and king of the West Saxons in 560. He died in 593.
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The Cagots were a peculiar race of people inhabiting southern France, in the Western Pyrenees. In the middle ages they were believed to be cannibals and heretics, and treated with the greatest ignominy. By the start of the 20th century they were legally on a level with other Frenchmen, but socially they were still regarded as degraded. The Cagots were so named being supposed to be descended from lepers.
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Calamity Jane (real name Martha Jane Burke) was an American frontierswoman. She was born in 1852, possibly at Princeton, Missouri and died in 1903. Renowned for her riding and shooting skills, she was nicknamed 'Calamity' on account of her reputation of threatening 'calamity' upon any man who tried to court her.
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The Calapooya (Calapuya, Kalapooia, Kalapuya) are a North American Indian people of the Willamette basin in Oregon.
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Calchas was a soothsayer who accompanied the Greeks to Troy.
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Caleb Cushing was an American politician. He was born in 1800 and died in 1879. Educated at Harvard he rose to eminence at the Massachusetts bar. He was a Representative from Massachusetts in Congress in 1835 until 1843, having been a Whig and, from Tyler's time, a Democrat. He was a US Commissioner to China, a brigadier-general during the Mexican War, and an unsuccessful candidate for Governor of Massachusetts. From 1853until 1857 he was a member of Pierce's Cabinet as Attorney-General. In 1860 he presided over the democratic National Convention which met at Charleston. His high reputation as a lawyer led to his appointment as US counsel before the Geneva Tribunal of 1872, and to his nomination by Grant as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, though he failed in confirmation of the office and was sent as US minister to Spain in 1874 where he remained until 1877.
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Caleb P Bennett was an American politician. He was a Democratic governor of Delaware from 1833 until 1836.
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Caleb Rodney was an American politician. He was a Federalist governor of Delaware from 1822 until 1823.
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Caleb Strong was an American politician. He was born in 1745 and died in 1819. He was a member of the Massachusetts Committee of Correspondence and Safety from 1774 to 1775, and of the Massachusetts general court from 1776 to 1778. He aided in drafting the State constitution in 1779. He was a member of the Massachusetts Senate from 1780 to 1789. In 1787 he was a member of the convention that framed the Constitution of the United States. He was a Federalist US Senator from 1789 to 1796, and Governor of Massachusetts from 1800 to 1807 and from 1812 to 1816.
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The calenders were a sect of dervishes in Turkey and Persia. They preached in the market places, and lived upon alms. Their name was derived from their founder.
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Caligula (real name Caius Caesar Augustus Germanicus) was a Roman Emperor. He was born in 12 at the camp of Antium and died in 41. He was the son of Germanicus and Agrippina. He received from the soldiers the surname of Caligula, on account of his wearing the caligae, a kind of boots in use among them. He succeeded Tiberius in 37, and made himself very popular by his mildness and ostentatious generosity; but at the end of eight months he was seized with a disorder, caused by his irregular mode of living, which appears to have permanently deranged his intellect. After his recovery, he suddenly showed himself the most cruel and unnatural of tyrants - reputedly a monster of debauchery and prodigality, a perpetrator of the greatest crimes and follies. The most exquisite tortures inflicted on the innocent served him for enjoyments. In the madness of his arrogance he even considered himself a god, and caused sacrifices to be offered to himself. One of his greatest follies was the building of a bridge between Baiae and Puteoli (Puzzuoli), in order that he might be able to boast of marching over the sea on dry land. He projected expeditions to Gaul, Germany and Britain, and having reached the sea, he ordered his soldiers gather shells for spoils, and then led them back to Borne. At last a band of conspirators put an end to his career by assassinating him.
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Caliph, or calif or khalif (vicegerent) is the name assumed by the successors of Mohammed in the government of the faithful and in the high-priesthood. Caliphate is therefore the name given to the empire of these princes which the Arabs founded in Asia, and enlarged, within a few centuries, to a dominion exceeding even the Roman empire in extent. The appellation of caliph has long ago been swallowed up in Shah, Sultan, Emir, and other titles peculiar to the East.
Mohammed having died without naming his successor, three rival parties appeared immediately after his death. The first was headed by Omar, a kinsman of the prophet, who demanded the election of Abu Bekr, Mohammed's father-in-law. The second party was headed by Ali, the husband of Fatima, the prophet's daughter, who declared for himself. The third party consisted of people of Medina, who demanded the election of one of themselves. Abu Bekr was chosen in 632, and prosecuting the conquest of Syria, he defeated the Byzantine emperor Heraclius and took Damascus. His successor, Omar, completed the conquest of Syria, took Jerusalem, subjugated Egypt, and defeated the Persians. He is said to have erected over 1500 mosques. He was succeeded by Othman, or Osman, who completed the conquest of Persia and other Eastern countries, extended his dominion in Africa, and took Cyprus and Rhodes. Othman was succeeded by Ali, who is regarded as the first legitimate possessor of the dignity by a numerous sect of Mohammedans, which gives him and his son, Hassan, almost equal honour with the prophet. During his reign a great schism divided the Mohammedans into two sects called the Sunnites and the Shiites, the former acknowledging the authority of all the caliphs, the latter acknowledging only Ali and his descendants.
Ali was murdered in 660, and his son Hassan in 661, when Moawiyah, the founder of the dynasty of the Ommiyades, became caliph, and transferred his capital from Medina to Damascus. His army continued the conquest of Northern Africa, and twice unsuccessfully attacked Constantinople (Istanbul). Carthage was taken in 698, after which the Mohammedans encountered no serious opposition in Northern Africa.
From the union of the Arabic and Berber races of Africa sprung the Moors of Saracenic history. The conquest of Spain immediately followed, Tarik, the lieutenant of the Saracen general, Musa, having totally defeated the King of the Goths. The caliphate now extended from the Oxus and Indus to the Atlantic. In 732 a great host of Islamic soldiers crossed the Pyrenees and invaded France, but were totally defeated at Tours by Charles Martel. In 755 the Mohammedan dominion split up into the Eastern and Western Caliphates, the western caliph having Spain, with his capital at Cordova; and the eastern including Northern Africa, with the capital at Bagdad. The former was ruled by a series of Ommiyade caliphs; the latter by the dynasty of the Abbasides.
The most celebrated of the Abbaside caliphs of Bagdad was Haroun al Rashid (Aaron the Just), 786-808, under whom learning, science, and art were in a flourishing state. Subsequently the Islamic kingdom lost province after province, and the temporal authority of the caliph of Bagdad was destroyed. Numerous independent dynasties were set up, the most important of which was that of the Fatimites, founded by an African Saracen who claimed descent from Fatima the daughter of the prophet.
This dynasty conquered Sicily and several parts of Italy, Egypt, and Palestine. It came to an end in 1171. In 1031 the Western Caliphate ceased, and the Saracenic dominions in Spain was broken up into several small states. The most brilliant period of the Western Caliphate was in the 9th and 10th centuries, when literature, science, and art were in more flourishing condition than anywhere else in Europe. The Eastern Caliphate lingered on until 1258, when Bagdad was taken and sacked by the Mongols.
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The Calixtines or Utraquists were, a sect of Hussites in Bohemia, who published their confession in 1421, the leading article of which was a demand to partake of the cup (calix) as well as of the bread in the Lord's Supper, from which they received their name of Utraquists (from the Latin uterque, both). Their tenets were conceded by the articles of Basel in 1433, and they became the predominant party in Bohemia. The name Calixtine is also given to a follower of Georg Calixtus.
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Calixto Garcia was a Cuban soldier and patriot. He was born in 1836 and died in 1898. He rebelled against the Spaniards in 1880 and was captured and deported to Spain where he was imprisoned for fifteen years until he escaped on the outbreak of the last rebellion in 1895.
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Calixtus I was a Roman bishop from 217 to 224, when he suffered martyrdom.
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Calixtus I. was pope. He was elected in 1119, in the monastery of Clugny, successor of the expelled pope, Gelasius II, who had been driven from Italy by the Emperor Henry V, and had died in this monastery. He excommunicated the Emperor Henry V on account of a dispute respecting the right of investiture; as also the anti-pope Gregory VIII, whom he drove from Home. He availed himself of the troubles of the emperor to force him, in 1122, to agree to the Concordat of Worms. He died in 1124.
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Calixtus III was a pope. He was chosen in 1168 in Rome, as anti-pope to Paschal III, and confirmed by the Emperor Frederick I, in 1178, was obliged to submit to Pope Alexander III. As he was not counted among the legal popes, a subsequent pope, Alfonso Borgia, made pope in 1455, was also called Calixtus III He died in 1458.
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Callinus, of Ephesus was the earliest Greek elegiac poet. He lived about 730 BC. Only a few fragments of his elegies are extant.
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Callisthenes was a Greek philosopher and historian. He was a native of Olynthus and was appointed to attend Alexander in his expedition against Persia. His expressed disapprobation of the conduct of Alexander incurred the displeasure of the courtiers and royal favourites, and he was put to death on a pretended charge of treason in 328 BC. He wrote a History of the Actions of Alexander, and other historical works.
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Callmiachus was a Greek poet and grammarian. He was born at Cyrene, in Libya, of a noble family and lived about 250 BC. He taught at Alexandria, and was appointed by Ptolemy Philadelphus librarian of the Alexandrine Museum. He wrote an epic poem called Galatea, several prose works, and tragedies, elegies, comedies, etc, but only some seventy-two epigrams and six hymns remain.
Callmiachus was a Greek architect and artist. He lived about 400 BC, and was the reputed originator of the Corinthian column.
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The Calottists were a satirical society founded in 1702 by Aymon and Torsac, of Louis XIV's bodyguard, and deriving its name from the calotte, a small cap worn by priests to conceal their tonsure. The society was transformed into a military institution around the middle of the 18th century and was finally suppressed at the revolution.
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Calouste Sarkis Gulbenkian was a British industrialist. He was born in 1869 in Turkey and died in 1955. He endowed the international Gulbenkian Foundation for the advancement of the arts, science, and education.
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The Caloyers are Greek monks, belonging to the order of St Basil, who lead a very austere life. Their most celebrated monastery in Asia is at Mount Sinai; in Europe at Mount Athos. They do not all agree as to their mode of life. Some of them are cenobites; that is, they live in common. Others are anchorites, living alone, or with only one or two companions; and others again are recluses, who live in grottoes or caverns in the greatest retirement, and are supported ly alms supplied to them by the monasteries.
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Calpurnia was the fourth wife of Julius Caesar. She married him in 59 BC.
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Calpurnius Siculus was a Roman poet of the first century AD. His works consist of seven eclogues closely imitating those of Virgil.
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Calvin Coolidge was the 30th president of the USA. He was born in 1872 and died in 1933. As president, Coolidge opposed tariff revision and abstention from the League of Nations. He retired in 1929.
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Calvin L Rampton was an American politician. He was a Democratic governor of Utah from 1965 until 1977.
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Calvin E Stowe was an American educationalist and abolitionist. He was born in 1802 and died in 1886. He was professor of Biblical literature at Lane Seminary from 1830 to 1850, and at Andover Seminary from 1852 to 1864. He was sent by Ohio to examine the European school system in 1836.
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The Camaldolites Camadulians or Camaldunians were a fraternity of monks founded in the Yale of Camaldoli in the Apennines in 1018, by St Romuald, a Benedictine monk. They were originally hermits, but as their wealth increased they associated in convents. They were always distinguished for their extreme asceticism, their rules in regard to fasting, silence, and penances being most severe. Like the Benedictines they wore white robes.
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Cambyses was king of Persia. He succeeded his father Cyrus the Great in 529 BC and reigned until 521 BC. His great achievement was the conquest of Egypt in 525 BC. He treated the Egyptians and their religion with great severity, slaying the bull Apis, their god, with his own hands. He also ruled the Persians tyrannically and had his brother Smerdis murdered. A magician led a revolt impersonating the dead brother and on his way to quell it, Cambyses died in Ecbatana a town in media of an accidental wound.
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Cameron Morrison was an American politician. He was a Democratic governor of North Carolina from 1921 until 1925.
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The Cameronians were a sect of Scottish Presbyterians, originating in the latter part of the 17th century and deriving their name from their chief leader, Richard Cameron, who, along with his colleagues, John Semple, Alexander Peden, and John Welwood separated themselves from the Presbyterians of Scotland on the question of the spiritual independence of the Church. They were suppressed by the government, and a party were surprised at Aird's Moss by a group of dragoons who killed Richard Cameron and his brother.
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Camille Saint-Saens was a French composer. He was born in 1835 and died in 1921. He composed Carnival of Animals (The Swan), Samson and Delilah, Danse Macabre.
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Count Camillo Benso di Cavour was an Italian statesman. He was born in 1810 at Turin and died in 1861. He was educated in the military academy at Turin, and after completing his studies he made a journey to England, where he remained for several years, making himself acquainted with the principles and working of the British constitution, and forming friendships with some of the most distinguished men.
He became a member of the Sardinian Chamber of Deputies in 1849, and the following year minister of commerce and agriculture. In 1852 he became premier, and not long afterwards took an active part in cementing an alliance with Great Britain and France, and making common cause with these powers against Russia during the Crimean War. The attitude, however, thus taken by Sardinia could not fail to prove offensive to Austria. A collision, therefore, was inevitable, resulting in the campaign of 1859. The intimate connection formed at that time with France, who lent her powerful assistance in the prosecution of the war, was mainly due to the agency of Camillo Cavour, who was accused by some on this occasion of having purchased the assistance of Napoleon III by unduly countenancing his ambitious projects.
In 1860 Garibaldi's expedition to Sicily took place; but towards this and the subsequent movements of the Italian liberator Camillo Cavour was forced to maintain an apparent coldness. He lived to see the meeting of the first Italian parliament, which decreed Victor Emmanuel king of Italy.
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The Camisards were Calvinists in France (in the Cevennes), who, in the beginning of the 18th century, in consequence of the persecution to which they were exposed after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685, rose against the royal deputies. A large army was required to put them down (1702-1705), and great numbers were massacred, the French Catholic government of the time considering it a laudable work to suppress the Protestant heresy in this bloody manner. The name is from camise, a provincial form of French chemise, a shirt, because their ordinary outer garment was a kind of shirt or blouse.
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The Camorra were a secret society in southern Italy which arose during the times of the Bourbon misgovernment in the former kingdom of Naples. It was mainly composed of poorer criminal classes which banded together to evade and defy the law, and included associates from the upper classes who carried on their lawless schemes with its aid. Its primary business was extortion, often on a large scale, and smuggling but it also carried out brigandage and more serious crimes.
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A campanologist is a bell ringer.
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The Campbells of Argyll are a historic Scottish family, raised to the peerage in the person of Sir Duncan Campbell of Lochow, in 1445. The more eminent members are: Archibald 2nd Earl, killed at the battle of Flodden, 1513.
Archibald , 5th Earl, attached himself to the party of Mary of Guise, and was the means of averting a collision between the Reformers and the French troops in 1559; was commissioner of regency after Mary's abdication, but afterwards commanded her troops at the battle of Langside; died in 1575.
Archibald, 8th Earl and Marquis, born in 1598. He was a zealous partisan of the Covenanters; created a marquis by Charles I. It was by his persuasion that Charles II visited Scotland, and was crowned at Scone in 1651. At the Restoration he was committed to the Tower, and afterwards sent to Scotland, where he was tried for high treason, and beheaded in 1661.
Archibald, 9th Earl, son of the preceding, served the king with great bravery at the battle of Dunbar, and was excluded from the general pardon by Oliver Cromwell in 1654. On the passing of the Test Act in 1681 he refused to take the required oath except with a reservation. For this he was tried and sentenced to death. He, however, escaped to Holland, from whence he returned with a view of aiding the Duke of Monmouth. His plan, however, failed, and he was taken and conveyed to Edinburgh, where he was beheaded in 1685.
Archibald, 10th Earl and 1st Duke, son of the preceding, died in 1703 and took an active part in the Revolution of 1688-1689, which placed William and Mary on the throne, and was rewarded by several important appointments and the title of Duke.
John, 2nd Duke and Duke of Greenwich, son of the above, born in 1678, died in 1743; served under Marlborough at the battles of Ramilies, Oudenarde, and Malplaquet, and assisted at the sieges of Lisle and Ghent. He incurred considerable odium in his own country for his efforts in promoting the union. In 1712 he had the military command in Scotland, and in 1715 he fought an Indecisive battle with the Earl of Mar's army at Sheriffmuir, near Dunblane, and forced the Pretender to quit the kingdom. He was long a supporter of Walpole, but his political career was full of intrigue. He is the Duke of Argyll in Scott's Heart of Midlothian.
George Douglas Campbell, K.T., K.G, etc., 8th Duke (of United Kingdom, 1892), was born in 1823. He early took apart in politics, especially in discussions regarding the Presbyterian Church of Scotland. In 1852 he became lord privy seal under Lord Aberdeen, and again under Lord Palmerston in 1859; postmaster-general in 1860; secretary for India from 1868 to 1874; again lord privy seal in 1880, but retired, being unable to agree with his colleagues on then-Irish policy. He died in 1900. He wrote The Reign of Law, Scotland as it Was and as it Is, etc. His eldest son, then Marquis Of Lorne, married the Princess Louise, daughter of Queen Victoria, in 1871.
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Campi was a family of Italian artists who founded what is known in painting as the school of Cremona. Of the four of this name, Giulio, Antonio, Vincenzo, and Bernardino, the first and the last are the best known. Giulio (1502-1572), the eldest and the teacher of the others, was a pupil of Giulio Romano, and acquired from the study of Titian and Pordenone a skill in colouring which gave the school its high place. Bernardino (1525-1590) was the greatest of the school. He took Romano, Titian, Correggio in succession as his models, but without losing his own individuality as an artist.
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Canaanites was the general name for the heathen peoples (Jebusites, Hittites, Amorites, etc) whom the Israelites found dwelling in Canaan (Palestine) west of the Jordan, and whom latterly they utterly subdued, though the subjugation was not quite complete until Solomon's time. They are believed to have been, in part at least, of kindred race with the Israelites; and some authorities find traces of their descendants among the present inhabitants of Palestine.
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A Canon is a church dignitary who possesses a prebend, or revenue allotted for the performance of divine service in a cathedral or collegiate church. Canons were formerly divided into canons regular, or those living a monastic life, and canons secular, those not so living. In England, besides the ordinary canons - who with the dean form the chapter - there are honorary canons and minor canons; the latter assist in the daily choral service of the cathedral. Of course these are all secular.
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Canonicus was an Indian chief, king of the Narragansetts. He was born about 1565 and died in 1647. He cordially received Roger Williams to his country and was ever friendly to the whites, but often at war with the Pequots.
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The Cantabri were an old Iberian tribe anciently inhabiting the northern mountains of Spain.
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King Canute was a Viking King who ruled England from 1016 to 1035. When Canute became the undisputed King of England his rivals (Ethelred's surviving sons and Edmund's son) fled abroad. In 1018, the last Danegeld of 82,500 pounds was paid to Canute. Ruthless but capable, Canute consolidated his position by marrying Ethelred's widow Emma (Canute's first English partner - the Church did not recognise her as his wife - was set aside, later appointed regent of Norway).
During his reign, Canute also became King of Denmark and Norway; his inheritance and formidable personality combined to make him overlord of a huge northern empire. During his inevitable absences in Scandinavia, Canute used powerful English and Danish earls to assist in England's government - English law and methods of government remained unchanged. A second-generation Christian for reasons of politics as well as faith, Canute went on pilgrimage to Rome in from 1027 to 1028. (It was allegedly Christian humility which made him reject his courtiers' flattery by demonstrating that even he could not stop the waves; later hostile chroniclers were to claim it showed madness). Canute was buried at Winchester.
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Canute III was a son of Hardicanute, the king of England, and king of Denmark in 1035.
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Canute IV was king of Denmark in 1080.
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Canute V was king of Denmark in 1147, until a civil war in 1157.
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Canute VI (Canute the Pious) was king of Denmark in 1182.
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Capet was the name of the French race of kings which gave 118 sovereigns to Europe: 36 kings of France, 22 kings of Portugal, 11 of Naples and Sicily, 5 of Spain, 3 of Hungary, 3 emperors of Constantinople, 8 kings of Navarre, 17 dukes of Burgundy, 12 dukes of Brittany, 2 dukes of Lorraine, and 4 dukes of Parma. The first of the Capets known in history was Robert the Strong, a Saxon made Count of Anjou by Charles the Bold, and afterwards duke of the Ile de France. His descendant, Hugh, son of Hugh the Great, was in 987 elected king of France in place of the Carlovingians. On the failure of the direct line at the death of Charles IV the French throne was kept in the family by the accession of the indirect line of Valois, and in 1589 by that of Bourbon. Capet being thus regarded as the family name of the kings of France, Louis XVI. was arraigned before the National Convention under the name of Louis Capet.
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The Capitanis were the hereditary chieftains of certain bands of Christian warriors who, about the beginning of the 16th century, retired to the mountain fastnesses of Northern Greece, where they maintained a kind of independence of the Turkish government, and supported themselves by predatory incursions on the neighbouring provinces. The Turks tried to organize them as a paid police, but with imperfect success; and in the struggle for Greek independence they not only formed an insurgent body of about 12,000 men, but furnished most of the Greek generals of that period - Odysseus, Karatasso, Marko Bozzaris, etc.
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Captain is a rank in the armed services.
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Captain Alfred Dreyfus was a French officer falsely accused of espionage. He was born in 1859 and died in 1935.
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Captain James Cook was an English sailor and explorer. He was born in 1728 and died in 1779, killed by the natives of Hawaii. The son of Yorkshire peasants, he was apprenticed to a shopkeeper, but acquiring a love of the sea became a sailor, joining the Royal Navy in 1755 and in 1759 becoming the sailing-master of the ship 'Mercury' which surveyed the St Lawrence River and the coast of Newfoundland.
Some observations on a solar eclipse, communicated to the Royal Society, brought him into notice, and he was appointed commander of a scientific expedition to the Pacific, with the rank of lieutenant in the navy. During this expedition he successively visited Tahiti, New Zealand, discovered New South Wales, and returned by the Cape of Good Hope to Britain in 1771. In 1772 Captain Cook, now raised to the rank of a commander in the navy, commanded a second expedition to the Pacific and Southern Oceans, which resulted like the former in many interesting observations and discoveries. He returned to Britain in 1774.
Two years later he again set out on an expedition to ascertain the possibility of a north-west passage. On this voyage he explored the western coast of North America, and discovered the Sandwich Islands, on one of which, Hawaii, he was killed by the natives, on February the 14th, 1779. Captain Cook wrote and published a complete account of his second voyage of discovery, and an unfinished one of the third voyage, afterwards completed and published by Captain James King.
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Captain John Smith was an English explorer and historical writer. He was born in 1579 at Willoughby, Lincolnshire and died in 1632. He fought against the Turks and was with Newport's expedition which founded Virginia in 1607, and on the return journey was imprisoned. Upon his release he became the practical head of Virginia colony. He explored the Chickahominy region and was taken prisoner by the Indian Powhatan, the tale of which forms the basis for the legend of Pocahontas - by his own account, Captain John Smith recounts that he was released after the intercession of the Princess Pocahontas. In 1609 he had an accident and returned to England, and in 1614 was engaged in a voyage of discovery along the New England coast., and in 1617 engaged in a further voyage before retiring to London
He wrote voluminously, but is suspected of romantic exaggeration and colouring. His chief works were: 'A True Relation', 'Generall Historic of Virginia', and a 'Description of New England'.
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Captain Sensible is the stage name of Ray Burns, one time guitarist with The Mopeds and The Damned.
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Capuchins are monks of the order of St Francis, so called from the capuchon or capuce, a stuff cap or cowl, the distinguishing badge of the order. They are clothed in brown or gray, go barefooted, and never shave their beard.
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Caradoc or Caractacus was a king of the ancient British people called Silures, inhabiting South Wales. He defended his country with great perseverance against the Romans, but was at last defeated, and led in triumph to Rome in 51 AD, after the war. His noble bearing and pathetic speech before the Emperor Claudius procured his pardon, but he and his relatives appear to have remained in Italy.
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Carausius was a Roman general. A native of Batavia, he was sent by the Emperor Maximian to defend the Atlantic coasts against the Franks and Saxons; but foreseeing impending disgrace, he landed in Britain and got himself proclaimed emperor by his legions in 287 AD. In this province he was able to maintain himself for six years, when he was assassinated at York by one of his officers named Allectus in 293 AD.
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A Cardinal is an ecclesiastical prince in the Roman Catholic Church, who has a voice in the conclave at the election of a pope, the popes being taken from the cardinals. The cardinals are appointed by the pope, and are divided into three classes or orders, comprising six bishops, fifty priests, and fourteen deacons, making seventy at most. These constitute the Sacred College and compose the pope's council. Originally they were subordinate in rank to bishops; but they now have the precedence. The chief symbol of the dignity of cardinal is a low-crowned, broad-brimmed red hat, with two cords depending from it, one from either side, each having fifteen tassels at its extremity. Other insignia are a red biretta, a purple cassock, a sapphire ring, etc.
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Cardinal Ercole Consalvi was an Italian Cardinal who conducted many negotiations between the Papacy and Revolutionary France. He was born in 1757 and died in 1824. He negotiated the Concordat with Napoleon in 1801. He was later dismissed and exiled under pressure from Napoleon, but resumed his position after the Battle of Waterloo.
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Henry Benedict Stewart (Cardinal Stewart) was a Jacobite prince and cardinal, and the last male of the royal house of Stewart. He was born in 1725 at Rome and died in 1807. The younger son of James Edward Stewart and the grandson of James II, his father made him duke of York. His life was passed mainly in Rome, though in 1745 he was with the French army intending to invade England. In 1747 he took orders and was made a cardinal, popularly being known as cardinal of York.
In 1788, with the death of Charles Edward, he became king of Great Britain, according to legitimist ideas, and his supporters called him Henry IX. When the French invaded Italy in 1798 he was forced to leave Rome and lost his income, but he was made an allowance by George III. He returned to Rome in 1800 and lived there until his death.
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Carel Fabritius was a Dutch painter. He was born in 1614 and died in 1654 when he was killed in an explosion at Delft. He was a pupil of Rembrandt.
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The Caribs are a South American Indian tribe still found in Guyana.
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The Carijos were a south Brazilian people discovered by the Portuguese in the 16th century. They were a friendly and peaceful nation who were attacked by some of the Paolistas from Sao Vicente in 1585. In self-defence the Carijos wiped out the attackers. The Portuguese responded with perhaps the first recorded example of genocide, waging a war with the intention of deliberately wiping out the entire Carijo people, which they did.
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Carl Ludvig Emil Aarestrup was a Danish lyric poet. He was born in 1800 and died in 1856. He published 'Digte' in 1838.
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Carl Jan Andersson was a Swedish explorer. He was born in 1827 and died in 1867 in the land of the Ovampos, in Western Africa. An explorer of Africa, he published Lake Ngami, or Discoveries in South Africa and The Okavango River.
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Carl E Bailey was an American politician. He was a Democratic governor of Arkansas from 1937 until 1941.
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Carl E Milliken was an American politician. He was a Republican governor of Maine from 1917 until 1921.
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Carl E Sanders was an American politician. He was a Democratic governor of Georgia from 1963 until 1967.
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Carl Gunderson was an American politician. He was a Republican governor of South Dakota from 1925 until 1927.
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Carl Gustav Jung was a Swiss scientist. He was born at Basle in 1875. He died in 1961. He is famous for developing a school of analytical psychology.
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Carl Von Linne Linnaeus was a Swedish naturalist. He was born in 1707 at Rashut and died in 1778. He invented the modern system of naming plants with two words, rather than long descriptive Latin phrases which was previously used.
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Carl Maria Friedrich Ernst von Weber was a German operatic composer. He was born in 1786 and died in 1826. He composed 'Der Freischutz' in 1821, 'Euryanthe' in 1823 and 'Oberon' in 1826.
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Carl Orff was a German composer. He was born in 1895 and died in 1982. He composed Carmina Burana.
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Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach (also spelled Karl Bach) was a German musician and composer. He was born in 1714 at Weimar and died in 1788. He was the third son of Johann Sebastian Bach and studied law before turning his attention to music and composed cantatas, passions, numerous keyboard and instrumental works.
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Carl August Nicholas Rosa was an operatic impresario. He was born in Hamburg in 1843 and died in 1889.
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Carl Sandburg was an American poet. He was born in 1878 at Galesburg and died in 1969.
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Carl Wilhelm Scheele was a Swedish chemist. He was born in 1742 and died in 1786. He discovered oxygen as did Joseph Priestley. Credit for the discovery of nitrogen in the atmosphere is generally given to Carl Scheele, though it is more likely that Daniel Rutherford discovered it first.
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Carl Johan Gustaf Snoilsky was a Swedish poet. He was born in 1841 and died in 1903. Educated at Upsala he was in the diplomatic service until 1879, when he started to devote his entire time to literature, having already made his name as a part-time poet and joined the Swedish Academy.
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Count Carl Gustav Tessin was a Swedish statesman. He was born in 1695 at Stockholm and died in 1770. The son of a distinguished architect, he was ambassador in Vienna in 1725 and was notable as one of the leaders of the Hat party. From 1739 until 1742 he was ambassador at the French court.
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The Carlists were the supporters of the Legitimate pretender to the throne of Spain.
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Carlo Francesco Antommarchi was an Italian physician. He was born in 1780 at Corsica and died in 1838. He was professor of anatomy at Florence when he offered himself as physician of Napoleon at St Helena. Napoleon at first received him with reserve, but soon admitted him to his confidence, and testified his satisfaction with him by leaving him a legacy of 100,000 francs. On his return to Europe in 1823 he published the Derniers Moments de Napoleon in two volumes.
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Carlo Cignani was an Italian painter. He was born in 1628 at Bologna and died in 1719. He was the last great painter of the Bolognese school. His finest paintings are frescoes in the saloon of the Farnese Palace, Bologna, and in the cupola of the Church of the Madonna del Fuoco at Forli. His paintings have been engraved by various artists.
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Carlo Goldoni was an Italian dramatist. He was born in 1707 at Venice and died in 1793 at Paris.
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Carlo Marochetti was an Italian sculptor. He was born in 1805 at Turin and died in 1868. In 1827 he settled in Paris and in 1839 received the Legion of Honour. Coming to England on account of the revolution in 1848 he became R.A. in 1866 and executed various statues.
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Carloman II was joint ruler of France together with Louis III in 879.
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Carlos Calvo was an Argentine historian. He was born in 1824 at Buenos Aires and died in 1893. He undertook a diplomatic mission to London and Paris, and in 1885 was appointed Argentine minister at Berlin.
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Carlos Coolidge was an American politician. He was a Whig governor of Vermont from 1848 until 1850.
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The Carlovingians were the second dynasty of the French or Frankish kings, which supplanted the Merovingians. They derived their name from Charles Martel or his grandson Charlemagne (that is, Karl or Charles the Great). Charles Martel (715-741) and his son Pepin (741-768) were succeeded by Charlemagne and his brother Carloman (768-771). Charlemagne became sole king in 771, and was succeeded in the Empire of the West by his son Louis le Debonnaire in 814. He divided his empire among his sons, and at his death in 840 his son Charles the Bald became king of France. He died in 877, and was succeeded by a number of feeble princes. The dynasty came to an end with Louis V, who died in 987.
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Carmelites are mendicant friars of the order of Our Lady of Mount Carmel. From probably the 4th century holy men took up their abode as hermits on Mount Carmel in Syria, but it was not until about the year 1150 that pilgrims established an association for the purpose of leading a secluded life on this mountain, and so laid the foundation of the order. Being driven by the Saracens to Europe in 1247 they adopted all the forms of monastic life and a somewhat milder rule. In time they became divided into several branches, one of them distinguished by walking barefooted. The habit of the order is of a dark-brown colour, and over it when out of doors they wear a white cloak, with a hood to cover the head.
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Carmen Sylva was the pen name of Queen Elizabeth of Romania.
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Carneades was an ancient Greek philosopher and the founder of the third or new academy. He is supposed to have been born in 213 BC and died in 129 BC. Carneades held that although man has no infallible criterion of truth, yet we infer appearances of truth, which, as far as the conduct of life goes, are a sufficient guide. Carneades, along with Diogenes and Critolaus, went as an envoy from the Athenians to Rome to beg the mitigation of a fine, and so captivated the Roman people by his eloquence, delivering the one day a harangue in praise of justice, and on the next proving it to be an odious institution, that Cato, alarmed at the effect of such clever sophistry, persuaded the senate to send the philosophers back without delay.
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The Carnutes were a tribe of Gauls who lived in the centre of ancient Gaul, between the Liger and the Sequana. Their capital was Genabum.
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Carol I was a king of Romania. He was born in 1839 and died in 1914. A prince of the house of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, he was invited to become Prince of Romania, then under Turkish suzerainty in 1866. In 1877, in alliance with Russia, he declared war on Turkey and the treaty of Berlin recognized Rumanian independence. In 1881 he was crowned king.
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Carol II was a King of Romania. He was born in 1893 and died in 1952. A son of King Ferdinand, he married Princess Helen of Greece, who bore him a son, Michael. In 1925 he renounced the succession, and settled in Paris with his mistress, Lupescu. Michael succeeded to the throne in 1927 but in 1930 Carol returned to Romania and was proclaimed king. In 1938 he introduced a new constitution under which he became practically absolute. He was forced to abdicate by the pro-German Iron Guard in September 1940, and withdrew to Mexico with Lupescu, whom he married in 194.
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Caroline was a British queen. She was born in 1768 and died in 1821. She was a daughter of the Duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbuttel, and in 1795 she was married to the Prince of Wales, afterwards George IV. The marriage was not to his liking, and after the birth of the Princess Charlotte he separated from her. Many reports were circulated against her honour, and a ministerial committee was formed to inquire into her conduct. But the people in general sympathized with her, regarding her as an ill-treated wife. In 1814 she made a journey through Germany, Italy, Greece, etc, to Jerusalem, in which an Italian, Bergami, was her confidant and attendant.
When the Prince of Wales ascended the throne in 1820 he offered her an income of 50,000 pounds on condition that she would never return to England. She refused, and in the June of same year entered London amid public demonstrations of welcome. The government now instituted proceedings against her for adultery, but the public feeling and the splendid defence of Brougham obliged the ministry to give up the Divorce Bill after it had passed the Lords. Though banished from the court, the queen now assumed a style suitable to her rank.
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Caroline Clive was an English author. She was born in 1801 and died in 1873. She was an invalid for many years and wrote eight volumes entitled 'Poems by 'V' and 'Paul Ferroll'.
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Caroline Frances Cronwallis was an English author. She was born in 1786 at Wittersham in Kent and died in 1858. She was an advocate of higher education for women.
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The Carpocratians were a sect of Gnostics of the second century, so called from Carpocrates, a prominent teacher of gnosticism. They maintained that only the soul of Christ went to heaven, that his body would have no resurrection and that the world was made by angels.
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Carroll S Page was an American politician. He was a Republican governor of Vermont from 1890 until 1892.
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Carter Braxton was an American politician. He was born in 1736 and died in 1797. He was a member of the Virginia Legislature from 1761 until 1771, was one of the Virginia Committee of Safety, a delegate to the Continental Congress from 1775 until 1776 and a signatory of the American Declaration of Independence. He was a member of the Executive Council of Virginia from 1786 until 1791 and again from 1793 until 1797.
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The Carthaginians were a powerful Phoenician people based in the city of Carthage. Carthage was the most famous city of Africa in antiquity, capital of a rich and powerful commercial republic, situated in the territory now belonging to Libya. Carthage was the latest of the Phoenician colonies in this district, and is supposed to have been founded by settlers from Tyre and from the neighbouring Utica about the middle of the 9th century BC. The story of Dido and the foundation of Carthage is mere legend or invention.
The history of Carthage falls naturally into three epochs. The first, from the foundation to 410 BC, comprises the rise and culmination of Carthaginian power; the second, from 410 to 265 BC, is the period of the wars with the Sicilian Greeks; the third, from 265 to 146 BC, the period of the wars with Rome, ending with the fall of Carthage.
The rise of Carthage may be attributed to the superiority of her site for commercial purposes, and the enterprise of her inhabitants, which soon acquired for her an ascendency over the earlier Tyrian colonies in the district, Utica, Tunis, Hippo, Septis, and Hadrumetum, Her relations with the native populations, Libyans and nomads, were those of a superior with inferior races. Some of them were directly subject to Carthage, others contributed large sums as tribute, and Libyans formed the main body of infantry as nomads of cavalry in the Carthaginian army. Besides these there were native Carthaginian colonies, small centres and supports for her great commercial system, sprinkled along the whole northern coast of Africa, from Cyrenaica on the east to the Straits of Gibraltar on the west.
In extending her commerce Carthage was naturally led to the conquest of the various islands which from their position might serve as entrepots for traffic with the northern shores of the Mediterranean. Sardinia was the first conquest of the Carthaginians, and its capital, Caralis, now Cagliari, was founded by them. Soon after they occupied Corsica, the Balearic, and many smaller islands in the Mediterranean. When the Persians under Xerxes invaded Greece the Carthaginians, who had already several settlements in the west of Sicily, co-operated by organizing a great expedition of 300,000 men against the Greek cities in Sicily. But the defeat of the Carthaginians at Himera by the Greeks under Gelon of Syracuse effectually checked their further progress (480 BC).
The war with the Greeks in Sicily was not renewed until 410. Hannibal, the son of Gisco, invaded Sicily, reduced first Selinus and Himera, and then Agrigentum. Syracuse itself was only saved a little later by a pestilence which enfeebled the army of Himiico (396). The struggle between the Greeks and the Carthaginians continued at intervals with varying success, its most remarkable events being the military successes of the Corinthian Timoleon (345-340) at Syracuse, and the invasion of the Carthaginian territory in Africa by Agathocles in 310 BC. After the death of Agathocles the Greeks called in Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, to their aid, but notwithstanding numerous defeats (277-275 BC), the Carthaginians seemed, after the departure of Pyrrhus, to have the conquest of all Sicily at length within their power. The intervention of the Romans was now invoked, and with their invasion in 264 BC, the third period of Carthaginian history begins.
The first Punic war in which Rome and Carthage contended for the dominion of Sicily, was prolonged for twenty-three years, from 264 to 241 BC, and ended, through the exhaustion of the resources of Carthage, in her expulsion from the island. The loss of Sicily led to the acquisition of Spain for Carthage, which was almost solely the work of Hamilcar and Hasdrubal. The second Punic war, arising out of incidents connected with the Carthaginian conquests in Spain, and conducted on the side of the Carthaginians by the genius of Hannibal, and distinguished by his great march on Rome and the victories of Lake Trasimene, Trebia, and Cannae, lasted seventeen years, from 218 to 201 BC, and after just missing the overthrow of Rome, ended in the complete humiliation of
Carthage. The policy of Rome in encouraging the African enemies of Carthage occasioned the third Punic war, in which Rome was the aggressor. This war, begun in 150 BC, and ended in 146 BC, resulted in the total destruction of Carthage.
The constitution of Carthage, like her history, remains in many points obscure. The name of king occurs in the Greek accounts of it, but the monarchical constitution, as commonly understood, never appears to have existed in Carthage. The officers called kings by the Greeks were two in number, the heads of an oligarchical republic, and were otherwise called Suffetes, the original name being considered identical with the Hebrew Shofetim, judges. These officers were chosen from the principal families, and were elected annually. There was a senate of 300, and a smaller body of thirty chosen from the senate, sometimes another smaller council of ten. In its later ages the state was divided by bitter factions, and liable to violent popular tumults. After the destruction of Carthage her territory became the Roman province of Africa.
Twenty-four years after her fall an unsuccessful attempt was made to rebuild Carthage by Caius Gracchus. This was finally accomplished by Augustus, and Roman Carthage became one of the most important cities of the empire. It was taken and destroyed by the Arabs in 638. The religion of the Carthaginians was that of their Phoenician ancestors. They worshipped Moloch or Baal, to whom they supposedly offered human sacrifices; Melkart, the patron deity of Tyre; Astarte, the Phoenician Venus, and other deities, which were mostly propitiated by allegedly cruel or lascivious rites, though these accounts are most likely exagerated propaganda by enemies of the Carthaginians.
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The Carthusians were a religious order instituted by Saint Bruno in 1084. He built several hermitages four leagues from Grenoble in south-east France, and, with six companions, united the ascetic with the monastic life. They practised the greatest abstinence, wore coarse garments, and ate only vegetables and the coarsest bread. From their original seat they were called Carthusians. Their fifth general, Guigo (died 1137), prescribed, besides the usual monastic vows, eternal silence and solitude. In the following centuries they received additional statutes, which forbade altogether the eating of flesh, and allowed them to speak only during certain hours on Thursdays and the days on which the chapter met. With increasing wealth some modifications were introduced in their silent and solitary life. Their habit is a hair-cloth shirt, a white tunic, a black cloak, and a cowl. The Carthusians were introduced into England about 1180, and built the Charterhouse (a name corrupted from Chartreuse) in 1371. Their chief house was long La Grande Chartreuse.
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A cartographer is a person who draws maps.
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A cartomancer is a person who divines by way of playing cards.
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A cartophilist is a collector of cigarette cards.
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A cartwright is a maker of carts.
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Cary A Hardee was an American politician. He was a Democratic governor of Florida from 1921 until 1925.
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Giovanni Giacomo de Seingalt Casanova was a Venetian adventurer. He was born in 1725 and died in 1798. He travelled Europe's capitals frequenting the most aristocratic society and living a generally rakish life. He is known by his Memoirs as an adventurer who acted a prominent part in all situations, amongst all classes of society, and in all the large cities of Europe, by turns acting the part of diplomatist, preacher, abbot, lawyer, and charlatan. Among others with whom he came in contact were Rousseau, Voltaire, Suvaroff, Frederick the Great, and Catherine II. His celebrated Memoirs are a lively picture of the manners of his times, but probably not very veracious.
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The Cashibos are a tribe of Peruvian Indians of very light complexion and reputedly beautiful women. They were formerly notorious for eating the old and infirm of their tribe.
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Casimir III (Casimiri the Great) was a King of Poland. He was born in 1309 and ascended the throne in 1333. He conquered Little Russia, Silesia, and repelled the Tartars. He protected the peasants with much energy, and out of favour for one of his mistresses who was a Jewess, conferred valuable privileges on the Jews. After his death the crown of Poland was recognized as elective.
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Cass Daley (real name Catherine Dailey) was an American comedienne. She was born in 1915 and died in 1975.
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Cassander wasa king of Macedonia. He was born about 354 BC AND DIED IN 297 BC. He displaced his brother Polysperchon in the regency, removed in succession the mother, the wife, and the son of Alexander the Great to make way for himself to the throne. He married Thessalonica, Alexander's half-sister, and founded the city of that name in her honour. In company with Seleucus, Ptolemy, and Lysimachus he defeated and slew Antigonus, king of Asia, whose dominions were divided amongst the conquerors.
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The Cassi were a tribe living in an area of what is now Hertfordshire in England at the trime of the Roman invasion.
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Magnus Aurelius Cassiodorus was a Roman writer. He was born in the latter half of the 5th century AD. He became chief minister of the Ostrogoth king Theodoric, and wrote a collection of letters, Variarum Epistolarmn Libri XII., which contain most valuable information with regard to the Ostrogothic rule in Italy. He wrote also a History of the Goths.
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Caius Cassius Longinus was a Roman soldier. He was one of the assassins of Julius Caesar. In the civil war that broke out between Pompey and Caesar he espoused the cause of the former, and, as commander of his naval forces, rendered him important services. After the battle of Pharsalia he was apparently reconciled with Caesar, but later was amongst the more active of the conspirators who assassinated him in 44 BC. He then, together with Brutus, raised an army, but they were met by Octavianus and Antony at Philippi. The wing which Cassius commanded being defeated, he imagined that all was lost, and killed himself in 42 BC.
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Cassius Clay was the original name of the American boxer, Muhammed Ali.
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Cassivellaunus was a British King, ruling north of the Thames, who offered a valiant defence to Julius Caesar during his second invasion of 54 BC. However, he was forced to capitulate and promised to pay a yearly tribute to Caesar and provide hostages.
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The Catauxis are a tribe of cannibal Indians living in western Brazil. They go naked and wear bangles of twisted hair on their wrists and ankles, use blowpipes and poisoned arrows in war and the hunt. As well as hunting they also farm and produce pottery decorated with geometric patterns.
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Catechumens was a name originally applied to those converted Jews and heathens in the first ages of the Christian church who were to receive baptism and had a particular place in the church, but were not permitted to share the sacrament. Afterwards it was applied to young Christians who, for the first time, wished to partake of this ordinance, and for this purpose went through a preparatory course of instruction.
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Cathari is a name akin to Puritans, applied at different times to various sects of Christians. It became a common appellation of several sects which first appeared in the llth century in Lombardy and afterwards in other countries of the West, and which were violently persecuted for their alleged Manichean tenets and usages. They had many other local names. Thus from their relation to the Bulgarian Paulicians they were sometimes termed Bulgarians. In Southern France, when they were mostly prosperous, they were confounded with the Albigenses, and were exterminated with them. The Cathari proper were dualists, of a type closely related to the older Gnostics, held a community of goods, abstained from war, marriage, and the killing of animals, and rejected water-baptism. They professed to strive after a higher life than that embodied in the ordinary religious ideals.
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Catharine Theot was a French visionary. She was born in 1725 at Avranches and died in 1795. She decided that she was the mother of God and changed her name to Theos. She preached in Paris in 1794 and declared that Robespierre was the forerunner of the word. The Comite de la Surete Generale had her arrested, and she was executed by guillotining.
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Catherine de Medici (Catharine de Medici) was the wife of Henry II, King of France. She was born in 1519 at Florence and died in 1589. She was the only daughter of Lorenzo de Medici, duke of Urbino, and the niece of Pope Clement VII. She was married to the Duke of Orleans, afterwards Henry II, in 1533, but had little or no influence at the French court either during the reign of her husband, who was under the influence of his mistress Diana de Poitiers, or during the reign of her eldest son, Francis II, who, in consequence of his marriage with Mary Stuart, was devoted to the party of the Guises. The death of Francis II placed the reins of government, during the minority of her son Charles IX, in her hands. Wavering between the Guises on one side, who had put themselves at the head of the Catholics, and Conde and Coligny on the other, who had become very powerful by the aid of the Protestants, she played off one faction against the other in the hope of increasing her own power; and the thirty years of civil war which followed were mainly due to her. Her influence with Charles IX was throughout of the worst kind, and the massacre of St Bartholomew's Day was largely her work. After the death of Charles IX, in 1574, her third son succeeded as Henry III, and her mischievous influence continued. She died in 1589, shortly before the assassination of Henry III. Of her two daughters, Elizabeth married Philip II of Spain, and Margaret of Valois married Henry of Navarre, afterwards Henry IV.
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Catherine Hayes was an Irish singer. She was born in 1825 at Limerick and died in 1861. She studied under Garcia in Paris and made her debut at Marseilles in 'I Puritani' in 1845.
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Catherine Howard was a queen of England. She was born in 1522 and died in 1542. She was the daughter of Lord Edmund Howard. She was secretly married to Henry VIII in July 1540, the marriage being acknowledged the following month, making her Henry VIII's fifth wife. While married to Henry VIII she used her influence over the king to advance the cause of the papal party. In November 1541 Thomas Cranmer supplied alleged evidence against Catherine Howard which resulted in her 'admitting' pre-nuptial misconduct and she was duly executed on Tower Green in February 1542.
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Catherine I was empress of Russia. She was born in 1680 and died in 1727. She was first the mistress and then later the wife of Peter the Great. A woman of humble origin, having become mistress to Prince Menschikoff, she was relinquished by him to the czar. In 1708 and 1709 she bore the emperor the Princesses Anna and Elizabeth, the first of whom became the Duchess of Holstein by marriage, and mother of Peter III. The second became Empress of Russia. In 1711 the emperor publicly acknowledged Catharine as his wife, and she was subsequently proclaimed empress, and crowned in Moscow in 1724. When Peter with his army seemed irreparably lost on the Pruth in 1711 Catharine secured the relief of her husband by bribing the Turkish general. At Peter's death in 1725 Catharine was proclaimed Empress and autocrat of all the Russias, and the oath of allegiance to her was taken anew. Catharine died suddenly in 1727, her death having been hastened by dissipation.
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Catherine II (Catherine the Great) was Empress of Russia. She was born in 1729 and died in 1796. In 1745 she married Grand Duke Peter, the nephew and successor to the Russian Empress Elizabeth on whose death in 1762 her husband succeeded as Peter III. Fearing that her husbands mistress may supplant her - or perhaps just wishing the throne for herself, Catherine II won over the guards and proclaimed herself monarch. Peter abdicated and a few days later was murdered in prison, probably on the orders of Catherine II.
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Catherine of Aragon was the first wife of Henry VIII. She w | 
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