The Probert Encyclopaedia of People

JEW

The Jews are a Semitic race of people also known as the Hebrews and Israelites. Their early history is identified with Palestine, now Israel. The Jewish history is recorded in the Old Testament. But the chronology is obscure and difficult to harmonize.

Jewish history may be considered as beginning with the emigration of the patriarch Abraham, ancestor of the race, from Ur of the Chaldees, probably about 2000 BC. Abraham removed to the south-east of Palestine, where we find his descendants flourishing when they were led to emigrate to Goshen, in Egypt. The interval is filled up with the history of the patriarchs, Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. Joseph, a son of Jacob, had become viceroy of Egypt, and his father and brothers were received with high favour by the Pharaoh who then ruled in this country. But in course of time the condition of the Israelites, under the rule of the Pharaohs, changed for the worse. They were treated as bondmen, and forced labour exacted of them in an unreasonable degree. According to some authorities the Pharaoh who began to oppress the Israelites was Ramses II, and their deliverance took place under his son.

It was perhaps about 1320 BC, others say 1491 BC, that a deliverer in the person of Moses led the Israelites out of the land of bondage, where they resided for some 400 years. By this time they formed a community of several millions, divided into twelve tribes, named respectively after Reuben, Simeon, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun, Benjamin, Dan, Naphtali, Gad and Asher, sons of Jacob, and Manasseh and Ephraim, sons of Joseph. Under his leadership they went forth into the wilderness; through him they received the law of the ten commandments on Mount Sinai, and the whole polity by which they were to be governed as a people. A ceremonial of sacrifice was instituted, and Aaron, the elder brother of Moses, and his sons consecrated as a hereditary priesthood, the priestly functions thus falling to the tribe of Levi. The nation was established as a theocracy, and this principle, however often forgotten in times of repose, continued henceforward to be the inspiring idea of national unity throughout the frequent crises of Jewish history.

The emigrants first settled at Kadesh on the southern borders of Palestine, where they remained for many years, this being the period spoken of in the Scriptures as the forty years' wandering in the wilderness. They now marched northward to find new settlements in Palestine, which they had to wrest by force from the Canaanites. Moses died before entering the promised land, and was succeeded as leader by Joshua, under whom the Israelites advanced to the conquest of the territories of the Canaanites west of Jordan. The former inhabitants, however, were not entirely subjugated, but retained possession of a number of cities, and the twelve tribes settled in districts which were more or less cut off from one another, and which formed an exceedingly loose union of small states under tribal chiefs, at times hard pressed by neighbouring peoples. It was only long after, and by a gradual process of absorption, that the Canaanite territories and their inhabitants became amalgamated with the Israelites.

After the death of Joshua, about 1220, or according to another chronology 1427 BC, a succession of judges or military leaders arose. Among the more remarkable of these judges were Barak, Deborah the prophetess, Gideon, Jephthah, Samson, and Samuel. About 1070 the Philistines, who inhabited the coast and the low-lying plains west of the mountains of Judah, had defeated the Israelites and subjugated part of the country when Samuel, the 'last judge in Israel,' was inspired to declare to Saul, a Benjamite, his destiny to become king, and anointed him as such. Saul soon proved his fitness for the post by his successful leadership of the Israelites, and he continued to organize the forces of Israel, and to fight with varying success against their enemies till his disastrous defeat and death at Mount Gilboa, after which the power of the Philistines again predominated on the west side of Jordan.

On the other side of the river the military skill of Abner still preserved a kingdom for Saul's son, Ishbosheth, and gradually reasserted with some success his authority in Ephraim and Benjamin. But in Judah David, a native of Bethlehem, a warrior whom Saul's jealousy had driven into exile and alliance with the Philistines, and who had previously been anointed king in place of Saul, established a separate principality, the capital of which was at Hebron. For seven years a hot war was waged between the two Hebrew states, and ended only with the murder of Abner and Ishbosheth, when all the tribes acknowledged David as king. David now transferred his residence from Hebron to Jebus, a fortified city which he took from the Canaanites, and called the city of David, afterwards Jerusalem. He assailed and subdued the Philistines, Moabites, Edomites, Ammonities, and other surrounding nations, till all the country from the north-east end of the Red Sea to Damascus acknowledged his authority. To this prosperous kingdom succeeded his son Solomon in about 993 BC, or by the long chronology 1015 BC.

His reign, owing to the warlike reputation which the nation had acquired under David, was entirely peaceful. He had no military tendencies, but he took great pains to arrange the administration of the kingdom in an orderly way, and his wisdom as a ruler and judge became proverbial. His alliances with Tyre and Egypt enabled him to carry on an extensive and lucrative commerce. He built the celebrated temple in Jerusalem, and extended and improved the city. His harem contained 700 wives that were princesses, besides 300 concubines. But with these, and with the extended commerce of the kingdom, it was inevitable that foreign elements should be introduced into the Jewish national life. Thus Solomon erected altars for the deities and the worship of the Moabites, the Ammonites, the Sidonians, and other nations; and the severe simplicity of old Hebrew manners gave place to luxury and craft.

The splendour of Solomon's reign had entailed heavy exactions upon his people. When Rehoboam, Solomon's son, succeeded, they came with Jeroboam at their head and demanded that he should make their yoke lighter. Rehoboam answered scornfully, whereupon ten tribes revolted and set up Jeroboam as king of a separate kingdom of Israel, with its capital first at Sichem, later at Samaria. Judah, along with a part of Benjamin and the tribe of the Levites, remained loyal to the dynasty of David. After an unsuccessful attempt to reconquer the kingdom of Israel, Rehoboam was forced by an invasion of Shishak of Egypt to give up the hope of uniting the two kingdoms.

In the next generation things had changed so much that Asa, king of Judah, was obliged to seek the help of Benhadad of Syria against King Baasha of Israel. Baasha was succeeded by Elah, Elah by Zimri, and Zimri by Omri, under whom the kingdom of Israel seems to have grown powerful. Omri established the capital of the kingdom at Samaria about 906 BC, and subjugated the Moabites. The son of Omri, Ahab, married Jezebel, princess of Tyre, an event which led to the extension of Phoenician idolatry in Israel. As Solomon had done before, Ahab built a temple for the Syrian Baal in his capital. In his reign and subsequently the great prophets Elijah and Elisha played an important part. Ahab was slain at Ramoth -Gilead in battle against the Syrians. He was succeeded by Ahaziah, and Joram. The latter was slain by Jehu, a captain of the army, who had been anointed king by command of Elisha.

Jehu now made a clearance in Samaria of Syrian idolatries, destroying the temple of Baal and putting the priests to death. Under Jeroboam II, fourth in the line of Jehu, the kingdom reached a high point of prosperity between 790 and 749 BC.

After Jeroboam's death there was a quick succession of kings, Zachariah, Shallum, Menahem, Pekahiah, Pekah; none of any significance. Under Pekah the kingdom of Israel became tributary to the Assyrians. Hosea, Pekah's successor, made an ineffectual attempt to free the country from the Assyrian yoke; but finally, in 722, Samaria was captured by the Assyrian king, Sargon, the kingdom of Israel virtually destroyed, and the chief inhabitants carried away and settled in Assyria and Media.

Generally while the kingdom of Israel had been flourishing, that of Judah had stood in the background. Rehoboam was succeeded by Abijam, Asa, Jehoshaphat, the last a powerful and fortunate king. In the hope of putting an end to the war with the kingdom of Israel, Jehoshaphat married his son Jehoram to Athaliah, the daughter of Ahab of Israel. After the murder of her son Ahaziah by Jehu, Athaliah seized the supreme power in Jerusalem, and put to death her own grandchildren in order to destroy the line of David, Joash alone being miraculously rescued, Athaliah was overthrown and put to death and the young Joash raised to the throne in 837.

His successors were: Amaziah (797-792), Uzziah (792-740), Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah (727-699). Under Ahaz and Hezekiah Isaiah delivered his sublime prophecies. Hezekiah was one of the greatest reforming kings; his influence extended widely over the kingdom of Israel, now in extreme decline. He was miraculously delivered from an invasion of Sennacherib, king of Assyria, by the destruction of the Assyrian army. Josiah (641-610) was the last of the pious kings of Judah. He was killed in battle against Necho, king of Egypt.

After him there was an uninterrupted succession of weak and incapable monarchs, until under Zedekiah (599-588) the capture of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar, in 588 BC, put an end to the monarchy, Jerusalem being destroyed and many of the people being carried captive to Babylon. The prophet Jeremiah lived from the reign of Josiah to the captivity.

In 538 Babylon was taken by Cyrus, king of Persia, who restored the Jews and appointed Zerubbabel governor of Judaea, as a Persian province. The great majority of the Jews remained in Persia, however, only about 42,000 returned, and settled chiefly in the vicinity of Jerusalem. About 458 a second return of exiles was led from Persia by Ezra. Along with Nehemiah, who had been appointed Persian governor of Judaea, Ezra promulgated the new law-book, practically identical with the Pentateuch. From the time of Nehemiah to the fall of the Persian empire the Jews continued to live in peace as Persian subjects, but enjoying their own institutions. When Alexander the Great overthrew the Persian empire the Jews readily submitted on being promised the free exercise of their religion (332 BC).

After the division of Alexander's empire Palestine was long a possession of the Ptolemies of Egypt, under whom it enjoyed a period of tranquillity. It was under the patronage of Ptolemy II (Ptoloemy Philadelphus), according to tradition, that the Septuagint or Green version of the Old+Testament Scriptures was made. After the death of Ptolemy Philopator Antiochus the Great of Syria became master of Palestine in 198 BC. An Egyptian and a Syrian party now arose among the Jews, and gave occasion to civil dissensions, which led Antiochus IV to invade Judaea in 170 BC, when he took Jerusalem by storm and slaughtered the inhabitants without distinction of age or sex, and endeavoured to compel the Jews to give up their religion. At length under the leadership of the Maccabees or Asmonaean family resistance arose, and after a struggle of nearly fourteen years was successful.

In 135 BC John Hyrcanus, son of Simon, a brother of Judas Maccabaeus, completed the independence of Judaea, and extended his dominion over the ancient limits of the Holy Land. During his reign the rival sects of the Pharisees and Sadducees became established. Aristobulus I, the son of Hyrcanus, assumed the title of king, which was held by his successors. In 63 BC Pompey, called in to help the Pharisees, took Jerusalem, and made the Jews tributary to the Romans. Latterly Herod the Great, who entirely threw off Jewish manners and cultivated the favour of the Romans, was recognized as King of Judaea by the Roman senate. It was in 4 BC, the last year of his reign, that the birth of Christ took place at Bethlehem. In 6 AD Judaea and Samaria became a Roman province under a procurator, who had his seat at Csasarea, and was subordinate to the prefect of Syria. Pontius Pilate, under whom Jesus' public ministry and crucifixion occurred, was made procurator in 26.

For a time the country was again ruled by a king, Herod Agrippa, from 41 to 44. He persecuted the Christians and put the Apostle James to death. In 65 a party of the Jews revolted from the Roman yoke and roused the whole of Palestine to insurrection. Vespasian was sent by Nero to suppress it, but before the war was finished was called to the empire and left his son Titus to conclude it. The result was the capture and destruction of Jerusalem in 70 AD, an event that deprived the Jews of the centre of unity to which their national life had hitherto clung. After an insurrection headed by Bar-Cochba, from 132 to 135, Hadrian razed the remains of Jerusalem left by Titus to the ground, and erected in their place a Gentile city, with the title AElia Capitolina. Jews were forbidden to enter this city on pain of death, and the name of Jerusalem was not revived until the time of Constantine.

Henceforth the Jews became more and more a scattered people, without a country they could call their own. Under the Roman emperors their treatment varied. Under the Emperor Julian they ventured to make preparations for a new temple in Jerusalem, Although this attempt failed, they derived great advantages from their sanhedrim, revived at Tiberias, and their patriarchates (presidencies of the sanhedrim), which were established one at Tiberias for the Western Jews in 429; the other for the Jews beyond the Euphrates, latterly at Bagdad. These two patriarchates became points of union, and nourishing Jewish academies arose in the East to serve as seminaries for their learned rabbins. One of the works of these scholars was the collection of the traditionary expositions of the Old Testament, and additions to it, which was completed in 500, and received, under the name of the Talmud, as a rule of faith by the scattered communities of Jews.

In time the scattered Jews made themselves masters of the commerce of the Old World, and, as moneylenders and brokers, were often of great importance to princes and nobles. Even during the dreadful persecutions which they underwent from the cruelty of the Christians they still continued prosperous in Christian countries. They lived more happily, however, among the Mohammedans, although they were distinguished by dishonourable badges and oppressed by heavy taxes; and during the Moorish supremacy in Spain their prosperity was great and their learning nourishing. In the cities of France, Germany, and Italy, after the llth century, particular streets and inclosed places were assigned to them as a sort of outcasts, in consequence of which, in the persecutions during the Crusades, thousands often fell victims at once to the popular fury.

They were generally pronounced incapable of civil rights and public offices. In Spain and Portugal during the 15th century they yielded to force, and multitudes suffered themselves to be baptized, many were put to death by the Inquisition, and at last they were banished from the peninsula. It was only in the end of the 18th century that the Jews began to be put on a level with other citizens, France leading the way after the Revolution, and Prussia following in 1811. After repeated unsuccessful attempts to procure their admission into the British parliament, the object was at last effected in 1858.

In the mid-20th century the German Nazi party under the leadership of Adolf Hitler used the Jews as scapegoats for the German economic crisis and a genocide of the Jews, Europe-wide was embarked upon during the Second World War in which millions of Jewish men, women and children were killed in an event known as the Holocaust. After the defeat of Germany by the Allied powers a Jewish state was formed in Palestine, and called Isreal. Anti-Jewish feeling continues to the 21st century, and such famous writers as William Shakespeare and Charles Dickens have perpetuated anti-Jewish feeling depicting Jewish characters unfairly as selfish, criminal types.

The Jews cling to their ancient religion with wonderful tenacity, and have retained their racial characteristics with remarkable purity in the midst of alien peoples, though inter-breeding with non-Jews is common, a person only being classified as Jewish if their mother is Jewish, the offspring of a Jewish man and non-Jewish woman having no such claim.
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