Assyria (the Asshur of the Hebrews, Athurd of the ancient Persians) was an ancient monarchy in Asia, intersected by the upper course of the Tigris, and having the Armenianmountains on the north and Babylonia on the south; area, probably about 100,000 sq. miles; surface partly mountainous, hilly, or undulating, partly a portion of the fertile Mesopotamian plain. The numerous remains of ancient habitations show how thickly this vast flat must have once been peopled; now, for the most part, it is a merewilderness. The chief cities of Assyria in the days of its prosperity were Nineveh, the site of which is marked by mounds opposite Mosul (Nebi Yunus and Koyunjik), Calah or Kalakh (the modern Nimrud), Asshur or Al Asur (Kalah Sherghat), Sargina (Khorsabad), and Arbela (Arbil).
Much light has been thrown on the history of Assyria by the decipherment of the cuneiform inscriptions obtained by excavation. The assertion of the Bible that the early inhabitants of Assyria went from Babylon is in conformity with the traditions of later times, and with inscriptions on the disinterred Assyrian monuments. For a long period the country was subject to governors appointed by the kings of Babylon, but about 1500 BC it became independent. About the end of the fourteenth century its king, Shalmaneser, is said to have founded the city of Kalakh or Calah; his son Tiglath-ninip conquered the whole of the valley of the Euphrates. The five following reigns were chiefly occupied by wars with the Babylonians. About 1120 Tiglath-Pileser I, one of the greatest of the sovereigns of the first Assyrian monarchy, ascended the throne, and carried his conquests to the Mediterranean on the one side and to the Caspian and the Persian Gulf on the other. At his death there ensued a period of decline, which lasted over 200 years. Under Assur-nazir-pal, who reigned from 884 to 859 BC, Assyria once more advanced to the position of the leading power in the world, the extent of his kingdom being greater than that of Tiglath-Pileser. The magnificent palaces, temples, and other buildings of his reign prove the advance of the nation in wealth, art, and luxury. In 859 he was succeeded by his son Shalmaneser II, whose career of conquest was equally successful. He reduced Babylon to a state of vassalage, and came into hostile contact with Benhadad and Hazael of Damascus, and with Ahab and Jehu of Israel, from whom he exacted tribute, as also from the king's of Tyre and Sidon. The old dynasty came to an end in the person of Assurnirari II, who was driven from the throne by a usurper, Tiglath-Pileser, in 745, after a struggle of some years. No sooner was this able ruler firmly seated on the throne than he made an expedition into Babylonia, followed by another to the east in
4. A year later he defeated the confederate princes of Armenia, Syria, etc, and advancing against Syria, overthrew the ancient kingdoms of Damascus and Hamath, and placed his vassal Hosea on the throne of Samaria. A protracted campaign in Media from 737 to 735, another in Armenia, and the expedition into Syria mentioned in 2 Kings XVI, are among the most important events of the latter years of his reign. Tiglath-Pileser carried the Assyrian arms from Lake Van on the north to the Persian Gulf on the south, and from the confines of India on the east to the Nile on the west. He was, however, driven from his throne by Shalmaneser IV in 727, who blockaded Tyre for five years, invaded Israel, and besiegedSamaria, but died before the city was reduced. His successor Sargon - who reigned from 722 to 705 - was a usurper who claimed descent from the ancient Assyrian kings. After taking Samaria and leading over 27,000 people captive, he overthrew the combined forces of Elam (Susiana) and Babylon. He defeated the King of Hamath, who along with other princes had revolted, took him prisoner, and flayed him alive, advanced through Philistia and captured Ashdod; then pushing southwards totally defeated the forces of Egypt and Gaza at Raphia in 719. The revolted Armenians had also more than once to be put down. In 710 Merodach-Baladan was driven out of Babylonia by Sargon, after holding it for twelve years as an independent king, and being supported by the rulers of Egypt and Palestine; his allies were also crushed, Judah was overrun, and Ashdod levelled to the ground. Sargon latterly crossed over and took Cyprus, where he left an inscription telling of his expedition. He spent the latter years of his reign in internal reforms, in the midst of which he was murdered, being succeeded by Sennacherib, one of his younger sons, in 705. Sennacherib at once had to take up arms against Merodach-Baladan, who had again obtained possession of Babylon. In 701 fresh outbreaks in Syria led him
n that direction. He captured Zidon and Askelon, and defeated Hezekiah and his Egyptian and Ethiopian allies, and forced him to pay tribute, after which he returned to Assyria to overawe the Babylonians, Elamites, and the northern hill tribes. A second expedition into Syria is briefly recorded in 2 Kings XIX., where we are told, that, as his army lay before Libnah, in one night the angel of Jehovah went out, and smote in the camp of the Assyrians 185,000 men (2 Kings XIX 35). In 681 he was murdered by his two sons, Adrammelech and Sharezer, but they were defeated by their brother Esar-haddon, who then mounted the throne. Esar-haddon fixed his residence at Babylon, and made it his capital. The most important event of this reign was the conquest of Egypt, which was reduced to a state of vassalage, the Ethiopian ruler Tirhakah being driven out and the land divided into twenty separate kingdoms, the rulers of which were the vassals of Esar-haddon. He associated his son Assur-bani-pal wi
h him in the government of the kingdom (669), and two years later this prince (the Sardanapalus of the Greeks) became sole ruler. In 652 a general insurrection broke out, headed by Sammughes, governor of Babylonia, Assur-bani-pal's own brother, and including Babylonia, Egypt, Palestine, and Arabia. Egypt was the only power, however, which regained its independence; fire, sword, and famine reduced the rest to submission. In 640 the Medes revolted, and latterly made themselves independent.
Though the king's character was marked by cruelty and sensuality, he was a zealous patron of the arts and learning. He died in 625, and was succeeded by his son Assur-emid-ilin (or Sarakos), under whom Babylon definitely threw off the Assyrian yoke. The country continued rapidly to decline, fighting hard for existence until the capital Nineveh was captured and burned by the allied forces of the Medes and Babylonians, about 607 or 606 BC. The story of Sardanapalus associated with this event is a mere myth or legend. Assyria now fell partly to Media, partly to Babylonia, and afterwards formed with Babylonia one of the satrapies of the Persian empire. In 312 BC it became part of the kingdom of the Seleucidae; later on it came under Parthian rule, and was more than once a Roman possession. Eor a long period it was under the caliphs of Bagdad. In 1638 the Turks wrested it from the Persians, and it long continued under their dominion until the mid 20th century.
The original inhabitants of Assyria and Babylonia are known as Accadians (or Sumerians). They belonged to the Turanian or Ural-Altaic race, and were, therefore, of the same stock as that from which the Finns, Turks, and Magyars have descended. In early times a Semitic race of people spread themselves over the country, and mingled with or supplanted the original inhabitants, while their language took the place of the Accadian, the latter becoming a dead language. These later Assyrians were thus akin to the Hebrews, Phoenicians, and modern Arabians. Their language differed little from the Babylonian, and both retained traces of the influence of the earlier Accadian. Assyrian is closely allied to Hebrew and Phoenician, and changed little throughout the 1500 years during which we can trace it in the inscriptions. It continued to be written with the cuneiform or arrow-headed character down to the third century BC The greater part of the Assyrian literature was stamped in minute characters on baked bricks, the subjects comprising hymns to the gods, mythological and epic poems, and works on history, chronology, astrology, law, etc. The Assyrian religion was almost the same as that of Babylonia, but in addition to the worship of the Babylonian deities the Assyrians adored their national deity Assur, who was called king of all the gods, the god who created himself. He was symbolically represented by a winged circle inclosing the figure of an archer. After Assur came twelve chief deities, including Anu, the father of the gods; Bel, the lord of the world; Hea, the lord of the sea; Sin, the moon-god; Shamas, the sun-god; Istar, a powerful goddess with various attributes; Ninip, god of hunting (the man-bull); Nergal, god of war (the man-lion); etc. A number of spirits, good and evil, presided over the minor operations of nature. There were set forms regulating the worship of all the gods and spirits, and prayers to each were inscribed on clay tablets with blanks for the names
f the persons using them.
The Assyrians were far advanced in art and industry, and in civilization in general. They constructed large buildings, especially palaces, of a most imposing character, the materials being brick, burned or sun-dried, stone, alabaster slabs for lining and adorning the walls internally and externally, and timber for pillars and roofs. These alabaster slabs were elaborately sculptured with designs serving to throw much light on the manners and customs of the people. A most characteristic feature of the palaces were gigantic figures of winged, human-headed bulls, placed at gateways (often arched over) or other important points; figures of lions, etc, were also similarly employed. The palaces were raised on high terraces, and often comprised a great number of apartments; there were no windows, light being obtained by carrying the walls up to a certain height and then raising on them pillars to support the roof and admit light and air. The Assyrian sculptures, as a rule, were in relief, figures in the full round being the exception. In many cases, however, as in those of winged bulls and other monsters, a compromise was attempted between the full round and relief, the heads being worked free and the body in relief, with an additional leg to meet the exigencies of different points of view. More than three-quarters of the reliefs are of warlike scenes; hunting scenes are also favourite subjects; occasionally industrial scenes in connection with palace building are represented, and less frequently religious ceremonials. The artists had no conception of perspective. In some of the hunting scenes an exceedingly high level of art is attained. The vestiges of Assyrian painting consist chiefly of fragments of stucco and glazed tiles, on which are bands of ornament, rows of rosettes and anthemions, woven strap-work, conventionalized mythic animals, and occasionally figures. In these traces of Egyptian influence are to be found, but the Assyrian figure type is for the most part
a more voluptuous and vigorous fulness than the Egyptian. Of the advanced condition of the Assyrians in various other respects we have ample evidence. They understood and applied the arch; constructed tunnels, aqueducts, and drains; used the pulley, the lever, and the roller; engraved gems in a highly artistic way; understood the arts of inlaying, enamelling, and overlaying with metals; manufactured porcelain, transparent and coloured glass, and were acquainted with the lens; and possessed vases, jars, and other dishes, bronze and ivory ornaments, bells, gold ear-rings and bracelets of excellent design and workmanship. Their household furniture also gives a high idea of their skill and taste.
The cities of Nineveh, Assur, and Arbela had each their royal observatories, superintended by astronomers-royal, who had to send in their reports to the king twice a month. At an early date the stars were numbered and named; a calendar was formed, in which the year was divided into twelve months (of thirty days each), called after the zodiacal signs, but as this division was found to be inaccurate an intercalary month was added every six years. The week was divided into seven days, the seventh being a day of rest; the day was divided into twelve periods of two hours each, each of these being subdivided into sixty minutes, and these again into sixty seconds. The Assyrians employed both the dial and the clepsydra. Eclipses were recorded from a very remote epoch, and their recurrence roughly determined. The principal astronomical work, called the Illumination of Bel, was inscribed on seventy tablets, and went through numerous editions, one of the latest being in the British Museum. It treats among other things of comets, the polar star, the conjunction of the sun and moon, and the motions of Venus and Mars.
Assyriology the department of knowledge which deals with Assyrian antiquities and history, is entirely a modern study. Until 1842 the materials for Assyrian history were derived from the Jewish records of the Old Testament and from such comparatively late writers as Herodotus and Gtesias. In 1843-46 M. Botta, the French consul at Mosul, made the first explorations at Ko-yunjik and Khorsabad, and the objects thus obtained were transported to the Louvre. In 1845 and in 1849 valuable researches were conducted by Mr. Layard, and subsequently continued by the British Museum trustees. Later researches were instituted by the proprietors of the Daily Telegraph, and then by government, in which Mr. George Smith met with considerable success. Later Mr. Rassam carried on the work of discovery. In the decipherment and translation of the cuneiform inscriptions among the most distinguished names are those of Sir Henry Rawlinson, Mr. H. FoxTalbot, Mr. George Smith, M. Jules Oppert, Dr. Schrader, Dr. Hincks, Rev. A. H. Sayce, Mr. Le Page Renouf, Prof. Terrien de la Couperie, Mr. Boscawen, and Mr. Pinches.
Abbreviations
Gazetteer
Research Assyria