Naga Pidgin (Nagamese) is an Assamese-based Creole language spoken as a second-language by most of the speakers of the Naga language and as a mother tongue by the Kachari people of India. Research Naga Pidgin
Naka'ela was a language formerly spoken by the Naka'ela people of Maluku, Indonesia. Reports from 1985 indicate the Naka'ela and their language are now extinct. Research Naka'ela
Every object has a class name which it shares with all the members of the class to which it belongs (e.g. elm, desk, road). Many objects and practically all persons have also individual names which have to be learned in each case separately. These are called 'proper names.' There is no object which may not have a proper name, but the most important are those of localities and persons. Personal names show a tendency to become complex. Surnames, or additional names, are combined with the primary name. Among the Romans three and even four names were employed - praenomen, nomen, cognomen and agnomen, and stood in that order. The Arabic system is even more complex. In modern Europe there are two elements in every name - the primary name or names, known as the baptismal, Christian or given name, and the family name or surname. Originally all English given names were expressive of the child's birth or appearance, or of the parents' position or religion, or were given later in life in accordance with the appearance,
character or history of the individual. Descriptive epithets, names of qualities, names of deities and names expressive of religious belief are numerous in our stock of names. Some are Celtic, chiefly from Irish, Scottish and Welsh sources. Even Latin derivatives have come to us through Celtic channels. Teutonic names are numerous, and reached England chiefly through the Saxons and the Normans. The introduction if Christianity made saints' names popular, and added greatly to the number of Greek and Latin derivatives. It was after the reformation that Scripture names became common. Puritanism encouraged this tendency, and added names of its own, such as Faith, Hope, Mercy, Charity and Prudence. The most popular names are those which have been made famous formerly by some great king or national hero, and with the advent of television and cinema, film stars and soap-opera characters as well as popular musicians. The names introduced at the Norman conquest, William, Robert and a little later John, have maintained their
ground ever since. George and Charles owe much to their royal associations, and Arthur a good deal to the Duke of Wellington. Mary and Elizabeth, with all their variations are Scriptural in origin. English surnames were at first person epithets which identified a man by reference, for example to his home, his father's name, his occupation, or some peculiarity in his appearance or character. In England they began to be hereditary in the 11th century, but even in 1900 there were regions, Wales for example, where the transmission of the surname was not universal. English surnames may be classified into four main groups. (1) Those of local origin. These are by far the most numerous as a class, although not individually of very frequent occurrence. They were usually characterised at first by the presence of 'de', 'atte' or 'a' before the name of the place - for example Atwell and Atfield. Districts, towns, counties, countries and estates all contribute to our list of surnames. E.g. Townsend, London, Kent, Ireland, Welsh, Scott. Continental
place-names, especially French, have supplied a large number also. e.g. Flemming, Gascoigne, St Clair. (2) Derivatives from given names. The word ' son' or its equivalent is frequently combined with the name of the parent to form a compound surname. Fitz is a form of 'fils'; 'p' or 'b' in Welsh names derive from 'ap' (mac in gaellic) meaning 'son'; the Irish prefix 'O' has a similar use; a final 's' is often contracted for 'son'. Hence such names as Fiyzgerald, Bevan, Price, Macgregor, O'Flaherty, Williams, Jones. Some given
names are now best known as surnames, e.g. Arnold and Oswald, or have practically disappeared except as surnames, e.g. Foulkes from Fulk. Surnames are formed not only from Robert, but from Rob, Rob, Robin, Dob, Dobbin, Hob, Hobbin; not only from Richard, but from Rick, Dick, Dicon, Hitchin, Hitchcock (hence Robson, Hobson and Dixon). Very many surnames are formed from diminutives that are now very little in use or obsolete. Watkins, Willcock, Heweston, Colinson come from Watt (Walter), Will, Hugh and Nicol, with the addition of the diminutives 'kin', 'cock', 'et' and 'in'. among the patronymics may be included those which are derived from the father's occupation and not from his given name, e.g. Smithson, Clarkson. (3) Those expressive of a man's office or occupation or class. Many of these are easily recognisable, e.g. Archer, Butler, Chamberlain, Chaplin, Cook, Fisher, Fowler, Marshall, Porter, Shepherd, Smith, Steward. Others are less obvious, and may preserve the names of occupations no longer in existence, e.g. Barker, Baxter, Fuller, Scrivener, Spicer, Walker (Fuller). (4) Those descriptive of physical peculiarities or peculiarities of dress or disposition. These include nicknames, and may simply be adjectives, or compounds of nouns and adjectives (Black, White, Gray, Strong, Wise, Young, Blacklock, Lightfoot, Truman). Animal names may belong to this class (Bird, Bull, Hawk). Some names of office may be simply nicknames (King). Place
names often derive from features such as trees, forests, animals, hills, cliffs, lakes, houses, towns, bridges, churches, fords and so forth (Holywell, Newtown, Bridgend). Mere class names, such as river, church, hill, may serve the purpose of proper names in particular localities and may finally, especially for those who speak another language or dialect than that of the locality, acquire all the significance of individual names. There are many names of Celtic origin which have had this history in England; many river names, for example simply mean river (from afon) or water (from dwr or uisge from wysg): Avon, Aune, Dour, Dore, Esk, Usk, Ex, Ouse are cases in point. In some countries the names of tribes and individuals, particularly of immigrants, contribute a fresh element to the place-names (Charleston, Sussex). Events such as battles, give rise to a small number of
names. When different races in succession people a country, each in turn leaves behind it a deposit of names.
Names descriptive of natural features are very largely Celtic (e.g. compounds of bryn or bran, 'a hill' and of ewm or combe 'a valley'). But other Celtic words are also of frequent occurrence, especially in Ireland, Wales and Scotland (e.g. dun 'a fort'; kil and llan 'a church'). The Roman contributions in such words as Chester are well known. The Norse and Danish settlers have left clear evidence of their settlements on the coast. The Saxon influence is more generally diffused, although Wales, Ireland and parts of Scotland have been less affected by it. The Norman conquest has not greatly influenced the place-names.
Abbreviations
Research Naga Pidgin