The C.I.D. (Criminal Investigation Department) is the detective section of the British police force. It was established in 1878 by E Howard Vincent. A ' Special Branch' was founded in 1883 to deal with the Fenian troubles, it now deals with the protection of high-ranking individuals and protection of the state, such as harassing members of the Communist Party. Research C.I.D.
CO53 is the codename for the 'South East Region Police Air Support Unit' which is staffed jointly by Metropolitan and Surreypolice officers, and has two bases - one in northeast London and one in Surrey. Research CO53
CP (corporal punishment) is a sexual activity forming a mild form of SM (sado-masochism) in which one or both partners typically spank the bottom of the other. variations include the use of slippers, belts, riding crops, spoons, hair brushes and other instruments in place of the usual flat of the hand. The positions may also be varied, though typically one partner sits and takes the other across their knee. Research CP
A cabriolet (cab) was a vehicle similar to a hackney-carriage with two or four wheels, originally drawn by a single horse but later by a motor. The original cabriolets were for a single passenger beside the driver and were a kind of hooded chaise. In the beginning of the 19th century an effort was made to introduce cabriolets into Britain, to supersede hackney carriages. It was not until 1823, however, that licences were obtained for cabriolets. At first their number was limited to twelve. These were of an improved pattern, with a folding hood, and seated two passengers, the driver being separated from them by a partition. In 1832 all restrictions were removed, and cabriolets came into popular favour. In 1836 a cabriolet on four wheels, the precursor of the brougham, was introduced, and from this the clarence evolved. In 1834 a patent was taken out for an improved, two-wheeled safety cab by Hansom, the architect of Birmingham town hall. The safety consisted in an arrangement of the framework which prevented the cab tilting backwards
or forwards in case of accident. These cabriolets had a small body, hung between wheels of over seven feet diameter. Two years later a fresh patent was obtained for an improved Hansom. Motor cabs were first introduced in 1897, but failed to pay and were phased out, only to start to reappear in London around 1905. Research Cabriolet
A cache is properly a hole in the ground used for hiding and preserving provisions which it is inconvenient to carry. They were used by settlers in the western states of America and Arctic explorers. Research Cache
A cacolet was a contrivance somewhat resembling a double arm-chair, or in other cases like a bed, formerly fixed on the back of a mule or horse for carrying sick persons or travellers in mountainous countries. Research Cacolet
A cadastral survey is a detailed survey of the lands of a country, their extent, divisions, and subdivisions, nature of culture, etc. They are in most countries executed by the government as the basis of an assessment for fiscal purposes. Research Cadastral Survey
The Cadillac Eldorado Brougham was an American two-door sedan car produced from 1957 to 1958 and developed from the earlier 1954 Cadillac Park Avenue. The
Cadillac Eldorado Brougham was powered by a 6384 cc V-eight engine rated at 325 bhp which provided a top speed of 190 kmh. Research Cadillac Eldorado Brougham
A caduceus was originally an enchanters wand, and later a herald's staff. It is most familiar in the hands of Hermes. Its first form was three shoots, of which two were intertwined, while the third formed the handle. The fully- developed form has, besides the rod itself, a pair of wings either at the top or in the middle, and two serpents intertwined. Research Caduceus
In Latinverse a caesura is the separation of the last syllable of any word from those which precede it, by making it part of the following foot. In English poetry it is equivalent to a pause. Research Caesura
The term cafeteria originates in Spanish where it refers to a coffee-shop, its English meaning as a self-service or small restaurant originates from New York in the 1880s and became popular in England (often abbreviated to cafe) since 1923. Research Cafeteria
In Scottish archaeology, a cairn is a mound of stones raised over a prehistoric grave, like an English barrow. Ancient cairns are of two types - chambered from the stone age and unchambered from the bronze age. Chambered cairns are again found in two forms; long cairns and horned cairns. Research Cairn
A calabash is a vessel made of a dried gourd-shell or of a calabash shell, used in some parts of America and Africa. They are so close-grained and hard that when they contain any liquid they may be put several times on the fire as kettles. Research Calabash
A calash was a light pleasure or travelling carriage, with low wheels, a removable top or hood and driven by the traveller himself, rather than a separate driver. Research Calash
The Caldecott Medal, named after Randolph Caldecott, is an annual award given since 1938 to the best US artist-illustrator of children's books. Research Caldecott Medal
A calendar (named from the Latin calendarium, from calendce, the first day of the month), is a record or marking out of time as systematically divided into years, months, weeks, and days.
The periodical occurrence of certain natural phenomena gave rise to the first division of time, the division into weeks being the only purely arbitrary partition. The year of the ancient Egyptians was based on the changes of the seasons alone, without reference to the lunar month, and contained 365 days divided into twelve months of thirty days each, with five supplementary days at the end of the year.
The Jewish year consisted of lunar months of which they reckoned twelve in the year, intercalating a thirteenth when necessary to maintain the correspondence of the particular months with the regular recurrence of the seasons.
The Greeks in the earliest period also reckoned by lunar and intercalary months, but after one or two changes adopted the plan of Meton and Euctemon, who took account of the fact that in a period of nineteen years, the new moons return upon the same days of the year as before. This period of nineteen years was found, however, to be about six hours too long, and subsequent calculators still failed to make the beginning of the seasons return on the same fixed day of the year. Each month was divided into three decads.
The Romans at first divided the year into ten months, but they early adopted the Greek method of lunar and intercalary months, making the lunar year consist of 354, and afterwards of 355 days, leaving ten or eleven days and a fraction to be supplied by the intercalary division. This arrangement continued until the time of Julius Caesar. The first day of the month was called the calends. In March, May, July, and October the 15th, in other months the 13th, was called the ides. The ninth day before the ides (reckoning inclusive) was called the nones, being therefore either the 7th or the 5th of the month. From the inaccuracy of the Roman method of reckoning the calendar came to represent the vernalequinox nearly two months after the event, and at the request of Julius Caesar, the Greek astronomer Sosigenes with the assistance of Marcus Fabius, contrived the so-called Julian calendar. The chief improvement consisted in restoring the equinox to its proper place by inserting two months between November and December, so that the year 707 (46 BC), called the year of confusion, contained fourteen months.
In the number of days the Greek computation was adopted, which made it 365.25. To dispose of the quarter of a day it was determined to intercalate a day every fourth year between the 23rd and 24th of February. This calendar continued in use among the Romans until the fall of the empire, and throughout Christendom until 1582.
By this time, owing to the cumulative error of eleven minutes, the vernalequinox really took place ten days earlier than its date in the calendar, and accordingly PopeGregory XIII issued a brief abolishing the Julian calendar in all Catholic countries, and introducing in its stead the one now in use, the Gregorian or reformed calendar. In this way began the new style, as opposed to the other or old style. Ten days were to be dropped; every hundredth year, which by the old style was to have been a leap year, was now to be a common year, the fourth excepted; and the length of the solar year was taken to be 365 days, five hours, forty-nine minutes, and twelve seconds, the difference between which and subsequent observations is immaterial. The new calendar was adopted in Spain, Portugal, and France in 1582; in Catholic Switzerland, Germany and the Netherlands in 1583; in Poland in 1586; in Hungary in 1587; in ProtestantGermany, Holland, and Denmark in 1700; in Switzerland in 1701; in England in 1752; and in Sweden, 1753.
In the English calendar of 1752, also, the 1st of January was now adopted as the beginning of the legal year, and it was customary for some time to give two dates for the period intervening between 1st January and 25th March, that of the old and that of the new year, as January 1752/3. Russia alone retained the old style, which by 1906 differed twelve days from the new.
In France, during the revolution, a new calendar was introduced by a decree of the rational Convention, on November the 24th, 1793. The time from which the new reckoning was to commence was the autumnal equinox of 1792, which fell upon the 22nd of September, when the first decree of the new republic had been promulgated. The year was made to consist of twelve months of three decades each, and, to complete the full number, five fete days, or sansculotides (in leap years six) were added to the end of the year. The seasons and months were as follows: Autumn; 22nd September to 22nd December Vendimiaire, vintage month; Brumaire, foggy month; Frimaire, sleet month. Winter; 22nd December to 22nd March: Nivose, snowy month; Plumose, rainy month; Ventose, windy month. Spring; 22nd March to 22nd June: Germinal, budmonth; Floreal, flowermonth; Prairial, meadowmonth. Summer; 22nd June to 22nd Sept.: Messidor, harvest month; Thermidor, hot month; Fructidor, fruit month. The common Christian or Gregorian calendar was re-established in France on the 1st of January, 1806, by Napoleon. Research Calendar
Calico-printing is the art of applying colours to cloth after it has come from the hand of the weaver in such a manner as to form patterns or figures. The art was originally brought to Britain from India, and was sometimes practised on linen, woollen, and silk, but most frequently upon that species of cotton cloth called calico. The process was originally accomplished by means of hand-blocks made of wood on which patterns or parts of patterns for each different colour were cut. These blocks were of various dimensions, according to the nature of the work, and where several colours were employed in one pattern, a block for each colour was necessary.
As an improvement in the method of printing from wooden blocks, especially where delicacy of outline was required, engraved copperplates were introduced about 1760; but the greatest improvement was effected by the introduction of cylinder printing about 1785, which had almost superseded the other methods, except for particular styles by 1900. The machinery then generally used consisted of various modifications of the cylinder printing-machine, in which a number of separate engraved cylinders were mounted, corresponding to the number of colours to be printed. Formerly the cloth had to pass once through the machine for every colour; but later, by an arrangement of machinery equally ingenious and effective, any number of cylinders were fitted on one machine, which acted on the cloth one after the other, and by this means the pattern was finished with a corresponding number of colours in the same time that was formerly employed to give one.
A great variety of methods have been employed in calico-printing, but they all fall under the general heads of dye-colours and steam-colours. Under the first head are included all the styles in which the pattern is printed on the cloth by a mordant - a substance which may have little or no colour itself, but has an affinity for the fibre on the one hand, and for the colouring matter on the other - the dye or colouring matter being subsequently fixed by dyeing on such parts of the cloth as have been impregnated with the mordant, and thus bringing out the pattern.
In steam-colour printing the colouring material is applied to the cloth direct from the printing-cylinder, and subsequently fixed by steaming. In steam-colours there is no limit to the number and variety of shades which may be produced, each colour-box on the cylinder printing-machine containing the whole ingredients essential to the production and fixation of a separate and distinct shade of colour. This process was superseding most of the other styles by the end of the Victorian era, the brilliant coal-tar colours so extensively used being almost entirely fixed by steaming.
The bodies used for fixing were tin mordants, tannic acid, etc, which were mixed with the dye-colours and printed together. The effects of calico-printing are varied by numerous other operations, such as the discharge-style, in which the cloth is first dyed all over, then printed in a certain pattern with discharge-chemicals, which either produce a pattern of some other colour, or one purely white, as in the Turkey-red bandanna handkerchiefs. The resist-style, in some respects, is the reverse of the discharge-style; the process being to print a pattern in certain chemicals, which will enable those parts to resist the action of the dye subsequently applied to all other parts of the cloth. After the prints have undergone the printing process they are submitted to a series of finishing operations, the object of which is to give to the fabrics a pleasing appearance to the eye. Research Calico-Printing
A calumet is a kind of pipe used by the American Indians for smokingtobacco. Its bowl is usually of soft red soapstone, and the tube a long reed ornamented with feathers. The calumet was used in the ratification of all solemn engagements, both of war and peace. To accept the calumet was to accept the proposed agreement, and to reject it was to reject the agreement. Research Calumet
The Calves' head club was instituted in ridicule of Charles I. The great annual banquet was held on the 30th of January, and consisted of a cod's head, to represent the person of Charles Stuart independent of his kingly office; a pike with little ones in its mouth, an emblem of tyranny; a boar's head with an apple in its mouth to represent the king preying on his subjects; and calves' heads dressed in sundry ways to represent Charles in his regal capacity. After the banquet the king's book (Icon Basilike) was burnt and the parting toast was 'To those worthy patriots who killed the tyrant'. Research Calves' Head Club
A camaieu is a monochrome drawing or painting with a single colour, varied only by graduation of the single colour in terms of light and dark. Research Camaieu
Camel hair is the name given to brushes made of the hair from squirrel's tails. Camel hair brushes are very soft, and when wet have no springiness at all, making them useless to artists, but valuable for glass work and the application of gold leaf. Research Camel Hair
Cameo is a general name for all gems cut in relief, in contradistinction to those hollowed out, or intaglios. More particularly, a cameo is a gem composed of several different-coloured layers having a subject in relief cut upon one or more of the upper layers, an under layer of a different colour forming the ground. Eor this purpose the ancients used the onyx, sardonyx, agate, etc. The shells of various molluscs are now much used for making cameos; and they are also imitated on glass and other materials. Research Cameo
Camorra was a well-organized secret society, once spread thoughout all parts of the kingdom of Naples. At one time the Camorristi were all-powerful, levying a kind of blackmail at all markets, fairs, and public gatherings, claiming the right of deciding disputes, hiring themselves out for any criminal service from the passing of contraband goods to assassination. It had central stations in all the large provincial towns, and a regular staff of recruiting officers. Though properly a secret society, it did not find it necessary under the regime of the Bourbons to conceal its operations; but under the later governments of united Italy, the society lost most of its power, except in the wilder parts of Southern Italy. Research Camorra
Campanology is a general name for every kind of knowledge pertaining to bells, theoretical, practical, historical, etc; but commonly restricted to the art and practice of bell-ringing, especially the ringing of bells that are used together in sets, peals, or 'rings', such sets of bells being very common in the towers or belfries of English churches. The 'changes' that may be rung on even a few bells, by changing or varying the order in which they are rung, are exceedingly numerous, the possible changes on seven bells, for instance, being 5040. Research Campanology
Camwood is a red dye-wood imported from tropical West Africa, and obtained from the Baphia nifida, a leguminous tree, of the suborder Caesalpinieae. This wood is of a very fine colour, and is used in turnery for making knife handles and other similar articles. The dye obtained from it is brilliant, but not permanent. It is called sometimes Bar-wood, though this name belongs also to another tree. Research Camwood
The Canada Company was a company formed by Sir William Alexander in 1621. On September the 21st James I granted to the Canada Company an enormous territory in America, covering a large part of what is now the USA and the whole of Canada. Sir William Alexander and his associate, David Kirke, endeavoured to sell the land as baronetcies, but the scheme failed and the Canada Company was dissolved. Research Canada Company
The Canadian Pacific Railway is a line of railway which traverses British North America from the St Lawrence to the Pacific. One of the conditions upon which the province of British Columbia in 1871 entered the Dominion of Canada was the construction of such a railway. Since that time more than one act had been passed empowering different companies to go on with the work. Eventually, however, it was completed, according to arrangement with the Canadian government, by a syndicate of London, Paris, and American capitalists, being opened for general traffic in June, 1886. Commencing at Montreal, the line goes on to Ottawa, thence round the north of the Great Lakes to Port Arthur at the head of Lake Superior, and thence to Winnipeg, Manitoba, thence to Stephen in the Rocky Mountains, then across British Columbia to Vancouver on the Pacific. Vancouver, now a thriving city, owes its existence to this railway. The line was of great importance not only as a means of communication between Europe and Eastern Asia and Australasia, but also as a military highway binding together the great masses of the British Empire during the late 19th century. Research Canadian Pacific Railway
A canaster (canister) was a rush basket in which South American tobacco was packed, and hence the name was applied to a kind of tobacco consisting of the leaves coarsely broken for smoking. Research Canaster
A candelabrum is a large and ornamental candlestick, often of a branched form. Ancient candelabra frequently display much ingenious and artistic treatment in the design, and the branches were often numerous. Marble and other materials, as well as metal, were employed. Research Candelabrum
A candidate is a person who seeks or is nominated for an honour, office or position. The term comes from the Latin candidatus, a candidate, literally meaning a person dressed in white, because, among the Romans, a man who solicited an office, such as the praetorship or consulship, appeared in a bright white garment known as the toga candida. Research Candidate
Candlemas day is a Christian feast of the purification of the Virgin Mary. The celebration is held on February the 2nd and involves a candle procession to consecrate all the candles which will be needed in the church during the year. Research Candlemas Day
The Cane Ridge Revival was a religious revival that occurred in 1799 and 1800 in the USA, and was the first famous religious revival in the United States after the 'Great Awakening', along the western frontier, particularly in Kentucky. It was begun by the inspired preaching of two brothers from Ohio, who addressed a camp meeting on the Red River, and made numerous enthusiastic converts. At the Cane Ridge camp meeting of 1800, the religious enthusiasm was intense. Converts were made by hundreds. Research Cane Ridge Revival
A cang was a Chinese instrument for the punishment of trifling offences. It was a kind of wooden cage fitting closely around the neck, with the weight proportioned to the nature of the offence, but so constructed that the culprit couldn't lie down nor feed himself. The cang was not removed during the period of punishment which lasted two or three months. Inscribed on the cang was the nature of the offence and the name of the criminal who was generally left exposed at the city gates. Research Cang
In paint brush making, cannoning is a process whereby the brush is given a bevel to that it is shaped ready for immediate use without having to be broken in. Research Cannoning
In geography, a canon is a deep ravine or valley with precipitous sides made by the rapid flow of a river and the action of denudation.
In religion, canon is a term given collectively to the books of the Holy Scriptures received as genuine by Christian Churches. Some books accepted as canonical by the Roman Catholics are generally rejected by Protestants. Research Canon
Canon Law is a collection of ecclesiastical constitutions for the regulation of the Church of Rome, consisting for the most part of ordinances of general and provincial councils, decrees promulgated by the popes with the sanction of the cardinals, and decretal epistles and bulls of the popes. There is also a canon law for the regulation of the Church of England, which under certain restrictions is used in ecclesiastical courts and in the courts of the two universities.
In the Roman Church these collections came into use in the 5th and 6th centuries. The chief basis of them was a translation of the decrees of the four first general councils, to which other decrees of particular synods and decretals of the popes were added. In the time of Charlemagne the collection of Dionysius the Little acquired almost the authority of laws. Equal authority, also, was allowed to the spurious 9th-century collection of decretals falsely ascribed to Isidore, Bishop of Seville. After the 10th century systematical compendiums of ecclesiastical law began to be drawn from these canons, the most important being that of the BenedictineGratian of Chiusi, finished in 1151. Within ten years after its appearance the Universities of Bologna and Paris had their professors of canon law, who taught from Gratian's work, which superseded all former chronological collections. After the appearance of the Decretum Gratiani, new decrees of councils and new decretals were promulgated, which were collected by Raymond of Pennaforte under the name of Decretales Gregorii Noni (1234); and the later decretals, etc, collected by Boniface VIII, were published as the sixth book of the Gregorian Decretals in 1298, all these having the authority of laws.
Pope Clement V published a collection of his decrees in 1313. About the year 1340 the decretals of John XXII were published (Extravagantes Johannis XXII); and at a later period the subsequent decretals, to the time of Sextus IV. (Extravagantes Communes) appeared. These Extravagantes have not altogether the authority of law. Under Pope Pius IV a commission was appointed to revise the Decretum Gratiani, the work being completed under Gregory XIII, and sanctioned by bull in 1580. The authority of the canon law in England, since the Reformation, depends upon the statute 25th Henry VIII, according to which such ecclesiastical laws as were not repugnant to the laws of the realm and the king's prerogative were to remain in force until revised. This revision was never made. A body of 141 canons was drawn up for the English church in 1603-4, and these are still partially in force, so far as concerns the clergy. Research Canon Law
Canonical hours are certain stated times of the day appropriated by ecclesiastical law to the offices of prayer and devotion in the Roman Catholic Church, such as: matins with lauds, prime, tierce, sext, nones, evensong or vespers, and compline. Research Canonical Hours
Canonization is a ceremony in the Roman Church, by which deceased persons are declared saints. The pope institutes a formal investigation of the miraculous and other qualifications of the deceased person recommended for canonization; and an advocate of the devil, as he is called, is appointed to oppose the canonization and submit evidence. If the examination is satisfactory, the pope pronounces the beatification of the candidate, the actual canonization generally taking place some years afterwards, when a day is dedicated to his honour, his name inserted in the calendar of the Saints, a solemn mass is celebrated by the pope, and his remains preserved as holy relics. Research Canonization
A cant hook is a wooden lever with a movable iron hook near the end used for canting or turning over heavy logs, etc, particularly in the USA. Research Cant Hook
The cantaro is a measure of weight and capacity used in the past in the Mediterranean countries. In Turkey it was 125 lb, in Egypt 99 lb, in Malta 175 lb and in Spain to measure wine it was about 3.5 gallons. Research Cantaro
Canvas is a coarse, unbleached cloth made from hemp or flax and used for sails, tents, etc. When prepared for portrait-painting it is classed as kit-cat, 28 by 36 inches, three-quarters, 25 by 30; half-length, 40 by 50; bishop's half-length, 44 or 45 by 56;
bishop's whole length, 58 by 94. Research Canvas
In geography a canyon is a narrow, deep gorge, with steep sides, cut by a river through soft rock in a dry region. The biggest and best known is the Grand Canyon of the Colorado River, USA. Research Canyon
Canzone is an Italian and Provencal form of poetry, used chiefly for love themes, though religious and other subjects were not entirely excluded. the earliest Provencal specimens date from the 12th century, those in Italian from the 13th. The number of stanzas varies, five or six being the most common, and the last stanza was invariably shorter than the others. Research Canzone
Capital punishment is punishment by death. Capital punishment is retained in 92 countries and territories, including the 37 states of the USA, China, and Islamic countries. It was abolished in the UK in 1965 for all crimes except treason - in 1998 the death penalty for treason was finally abolished in the United Kingdom. Methods of execution include electrocution, lethal gas, hanging, shooting, lethal injection, garrotting, and decapitation. In Britain, the number of capital offences was reduced from over 200 at the end of the 18th century, until capital punishment was abolished in 1866 for all crimes except murder, treason, piracy, and certain arson attacks. Its use was subject to the royal prerogative of mercy. The punishment was carried out by hanging (in public until 1866).
The improvement in the penal laws of Europe in respect to the reduction of capital punishment may be traced in large part to the publication of Beccaria's treatise on Crimes and Punishments (Dei Delitti e delle Pene) in 1764. At that time in England, as Blackstone a year later pointed out with some amount of feeling, there were 160 capital offences in the statute book. The work of practical reform was initiated in 1770 by Sir William Meredith, who moved for a committee of inquiry into the state of the criminal laws; but the modifications secured by it were few, owing to the opposition of the House of Lords, which continued down to 1832 to oppose systematically all attempts at criminal law reform.
The publication of Madan's Thoughts on Executive Justice, in 1784, urging the stricter administration of the law as it then stood, brought out the opposition of Sir Samuel Romilly, who replied to it in 1785, and introduced at short intervals a series of bills for the abolition of the extreme sentence for minor offences. The influence of Paley and LordEllenborough, and the reaction from the revolutionary principles, which prior to the French Revolution had inaugurated great penal changes in France, told strongly against his efforts; and even his Shoplifting Act, to abolish the sentence of death in cases of theft to the value of five shillings, was resolutely rejected, though passed by the Commons in 1810, 1811, 1813, and 1816. Romilly's work was taken up by Sir James Mackintosh in 1820, and under Peel's ministry with greater success. At his death, however, in the year of the passage of the Reform Bill (1832) forty kinds of forgery with many less serious offences were still capital, though from that time the amelioration was rapid. In the five years following the Reform Act, the capital offences were reduced to 37, and subsequent changes left in 1861 only four capital charges - setting fire to H.M. dockyards or arsenals, piracy with violence, treason, and murder. By 1906 only treason and murder were capital offences in England, andScotland also, though robbery, rape, incest, and wilful fire-raising were still capital crimes in Scottish common law.
Prior to 1868 executions were conducted in public in England, but then in 1868 the law changed that all executions were to be conducted in private within the prison walls. Capital punishment for murder was abolished in the United Kingdom in 1965 but still exists for treason, and during the 1980's it was revealed that the police had a shoot-to-kill and summary execution policy for those suspected of being terrorists. In 2005 a 27 year old Brazilian man was executed by being shot seven times in the head and once in the shoulder after being tackled to the ground by plain clothed police officers who mistakenly believed him to be a suicide bomber.
In 1990, Ireland abolished the death penalty for all offences. In Saudi Arabia execution is by beheading in public. Countries that have abolished the death penalty fall into three categories: those that have abolished it for all crimes (44 countries); those that retain it only for exceptional crimes such as war crimes (17 countries); and those that retain the death penalty for ordinary crimes but have not executed anyone since 1980 (25 countries and territories).
The first country in Europe to abolish the death penalty was Romania in 1864, followed by Portugal in 1867, Holland in 1870, and by Switzerland in 1874. In the USA, the Supreme Court declared capital punishment unconstitutional in 1972, as a cruel and unusual punishment, but decided in 1976 that this was not so in all circumstances. It was therefore reintroduced in some states. Many countries use capital punishment for crimes other than murder, such as drug offences (in Malaysia and elsewhere). In 1977 the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights ruled out imposition of the death penalty on those under the age of 18. The covenant was signed by President Carter on behalf of the USA, but in 1989 the US Supreme Court decided that it could be imposed from the age of 16 for murder, and that the mentally retarded could also face the death penalty. Research Capital Punishment
Capitals are the large letters used in writing and printing, most commonly as the initial letters of certain words. As among the ancient Greeks and Romans, so also in the early part of the middle ages, all books were written without any distinction in the kind of letters, large letters (capitals) being the only ones used; but gradually the practice became common of beginning a book, subsequently, also, the chief divisions and sections of a book, with a large capital letter, usually illuminated and otherwise richly ornamented. Research Capitals
Cappagh brown is a bituminous earth, coloured by oxide of manganese and iron, which yields pigments of various rich brown colours. It is called also manganese brown andt derives its name from Cappagh, near Cork, in Ireland. Research Cappagh Brown
Caprification is a horticultural operation performed by the ancients upon figs. It consists in suspending above the cultivated figs branches of the wild fig covered with a species of gall insect, which carries the pollen of the male flowers to fertilize the female flowers of the cultivated fig. The term is also applied to the fecundation of the female date palms by shedding over them the pollen from the male plant. Research Caprification
Carat is the unit of measurement of gold purity - the proportion of gold to other metals in the alloy, expressed in 24ths. Coinage contains 22 parts of gold and is therefore described as 22 carat, pure gold is 24 carat. The carat is also a unit of weight, equal to 3.17 troy grains, used in the weighing of precious stones. Research Carat
Carbonari was the name of an Italian political secret society, which appears to have been formed by the Neapolitan republicans during the reign of Joachim (Murat), and had for its object the expulsion of the strangers and the establishment of a democratic government. The ritual of the Carbonari was taken from the trade of the charcoal-burner. A lodge was baracca (a hut); a meeting was vendita (a sale); an important meeting alta vendita.
There were four grades in the society; and the ceremonies of initiation were characterized by many mysticrites. The language of religion was much used to express their purposes. Christ was the lamb torn by the wolf and whom they were sworn to avenge. Clearing the wood of wolves (opposition to tyranny) became the symbolic expression of their aim. By this they are said to have meant at first only deliverance from foreign dominion; but in later times democratical and antimonarchical principles sprang up, which were discussed chiefly among the higher degrees. The order, soon after its foundation, contained from 24,000 to 30,000 members, and increased so rapidly that it spread through all Italy. In 1820, in the month of March alone, about 650,000 new members are said to have been admitted.
After the suppression of the Neapolitan and Piedmontese revolution in 1821, the Carbonari, throughout Italy, were declared guilty of high treason, and punished as such by the laws. Meantime societies of a similar kind had been formed in France, with which the Italian Carbonari amalgamated; and Paris became the head-quarters of Carbonarism. The organization took on more of a French character, and gradually alienated the sympathies of the Italian members, a number of whom dissolved connection with it, in order to form the party of 'Young Italy.' Research Carbonari
A carboy is a large and somewhat globular bottle of green glass protected by an outside covering of wickerwork or other material, for carrying vitriol or other corrosive liquid. Research Carboy
The cardinal points are the north, south, east and west points of the horizon; the four intersections of the horizon with the meridian and the prime vertical circle. Research Cardinal Points
Careless driving, and also furious driving, were made statutory offences in Britain by an act passed in 1861, and special penalties were also introduced into local acts. Research Careless Driving
A caret (from the Latin meaning something is missing) is a writer's mark indicating that something should be inserted at this point, usually an omitted word or phrase. The caret is represented by an open based triangle, with its apex uppermost. Research Caret
The Caribbean Community (CARICOM) is an organisation made up of former British colonies in the Caribbean whose aim is to promote cooperation in economic, cultural and technological matters, as well as coordinating a common foreign policy. The Caribbean Community was founded in 1973. Research Caribbean Community
A caricature is a representation of the qualities and peculiarities of an object, but in such a way that beauties are concealed and peculiarities or defects exaggerated, so as to make the person or thing ridiculous, while a general likeness is retained. Though a degenerate, it is one of the oldest forms of art. Egyptian art has numerous specimens of caricature, and it has an important place in Greek and Roman art. It nourished in every European nation during the middle ages, and in the 19th century day was the chief feature in the so-called comic journals. The chief masters of caricature in Britain were Hogarth, Gilray, Rowlandson, Bunbury, John Doyle, Leech, Richard Doyle, Cruickshank, Tenniel, etc. Punch and Vanity Fair traditionally contained the best examples of caricature in British art. Research Caricature
The Carlton Club was a famous political club in Pall Mall, London. It was the recognised headquarters of the Conservative Party, and was founded in 1831 or 1832 by the Duke of Wellington. and held its first meeting in Charles Street, St James's before being removed to Carlton Gardens in 1832 and built a club-house in Pall Mall in 1836. Research Carlton Club
In the fine arts, carnation describes the colour of flesh and as such the parts of a picture which are naked or without drapery, exhibiting the natural colour of the flesh. Research Carnation
Carnival is traditionally the feast or season of rejoicing before Lent, observed in Catholic countries with much revelry and merriment. The name comes from Low Latin carnelevamen for carnis levamen, solace of the flesh or body, feasting permitted in anticipation of any fast. Carnival observances declined greatly by 1900, but in some of the cities of Italy, especially Rome, Milan, and Naples, were still a great popular festival, as well as in some parts of Germany and by the later part of the 20th century the greatest carnivals were held in Brazil and the West Indian islands. Some have thought the carnival mainly a survival of the pagan Saturnalia of the Romans, which it much resembles in many of the usages, and in the tricks and mummeries with which it abounds. Research Carnival
Carpet, a thick fabric, generally composed wholly or principally of wool, for covering the floors of apartments, staircases, and passages in the interior of a house or other place. Carpets were originally introduced from the East, where they were fabricated in pieces, like the modern rugs, for sitting on - a use obviously suggested by the Eastern habit of sitting cross-legged upon the floor. Eastern carpets are still highly thought of in Europe, into which they are largely imported. The good quality Persian, Turkish, and Indian carpets are all woven by hand, and the design is formed by knotting into the warp tufts of woollen threads of the proper colour one after the other.
Of European carpets the Brussels carpet was a common and highly-esteemed variety at the end of the 19th century. It was composed of linen thread and worsted, the latter forming the pattern. The linen basis did not appear on the surface, being concealed by the worsted, which was drawn through the reticulations and looped over wires that were afterwards withdrawn, giving the surface a ribbed appearance.
Wilton carpets were similar to Brussels in the process of their manufacture, but in them the loops were cut open by using wires with a knife-edge, and the surface thus obtained a pile.
Tapestry carpets have also a pile surface. They were traditionally manufactured according to a process patented by Mr. Whytock of Edinburgh in 1832, the great speciality of which was that the threads were particoloured by printing in the proper manner for each design before being woven up.
The Kidderminster or Scotch carpet consisted of two distinct webs woven at the same time and knitted together by the woof. The pattern was the same on both sides of the cloth, but the colours were reversed. An improvement upon this was the three-ply carpeting, made originally at Kilmarnock.
The original Axminster carpets were made on the principle of the Persian or Turkey carpets. Patent Axminster carpets (invented by Templeton of Glasgow, 1839) have a fine pile, which is produced by using chenille as the weft, the projecting threads of which form the pile, which is dyed before being used. Carpets of felted wool, with designs printed on them, are also used, and are very cheap. Cheap jute carpets are also made. Research Carpet
Carpet Baggers was a name first given to American Northern state politicians who sought temporary homes in the Southern States in order to obtain qualifications for admission to Congress from these Southern States. After 1865 the name was given to Northern Republicans who settled in the South and later to all whites who endeavoured to control the coloured vote. Today the term carpet bagger refers to a person seeking to achieve political success or private gain in a place with which he is unconnected. Research Carpet Bagger
In the USA, during the period between 1865 and 1870 the government of a majority of the Southern States of America was controlled by unscrupulous adventurers, who excluded the better class of whites from voting and controlled elections by Negro majorities. Fraudulent taxes were levied and enormous State debts were rolled up. These governments were known as Carpet-bag Governments'. Research Carpet-Bag Governments
In Victorian London the public were plagued by petty criminals known as carriage thieves. Writing in 1888, Dickens reports:
'Among the many thieves who infest the London streets none ar more artful or more active =than the carriage thieves. No vehicle should ever be left with open windows; and valuable rugs in victorias, etc should always be secured to the carriage by a strap or other fastening. Ladies should be especially careful of officious persons volunteering to open or close carriage-doors. In nine cases out of ten these men and boys are expert pickpockets.' Research Carriage Thieves
A Carte-Blanche is a blank piece of white paper, signed and sealed and given to a person to fill-up as he pleases, thus giving unlimited power to decide. Research Carte-Blanche
In painting, a cartoon is a drawing on stout paper or other material, intended to be used as a model for a large picture in fresco, a process in which it is necessary to complete the picture portion by portion and in which a fault cannot afterwards be easily corrected. The cartoon is made exactly the size of the picture intended, and the design is transferred to the surface to be ornamented by tracing or other processes. Cartoons executed in colour, like paintings, are used for designs in tapestries, mosaics, etc. The most famous are those painted by Raphael for the Vatican tapestries, seven of which are still preserved in the South KensingtonMuseum, London. The subjects of the seven are: 1, Paul Preaching at Athens; 2, The Death of Ananias; 3, Elymas the Sorcerer Struck with Blindness; 4, Christ's Charge to Peter; 5, The Sacrifice at Lystra; 6, Peter and John Healing the Cripple at the Beautiful Gate of the Temple; 7, The Miraculous Draught of Fishes. In modern times the term is also applied to a pictorial sketch relating to some notable character or events of the day, and erroneously to an animated film. Research Cartoon
A carucate was formerly as much land as one team could plough in one year. The size varied according to the nature of the soil and the practice of husbandry in different districts. Research Carucate
In 1705, Thomas Cary, then Deputy Governor of North Carolina, was deposed at the solicitation of the Quakers for disfranchising them through the requirements of the Test Act. He endeavoured to usurp the government during several years. Finally, in 1711 he endeavoured to capture Governor Hyde by force. Governor Spotswood, of Virginia, sent a troop to Hyde's assistance. Cary was forced into submission. Research Cary Rebellion
Casale Media is a Canadian interactive marketing and technology company that operates an online advertising network launched in September 2003 by Joe Casale. Within a year of its launch, Casale Media was ranked the second largest online advertising network by comScore Media Metrix. Key features of the Casale Media network are: campaignstatistics that are updated and delivered in real-time; both advertisers and publishers can pause or make changes to campaigns at any time of the day or night instantly, without delay; advertisers only pay for the CPMinventory they buy; publishers receive the industry's highest payouts - 70% of the gross revenue; adverts can be precisely targeted to specific markets using a variety of targeting filters including sixteen content categories that include time-of-day targeting, geo-targeting (down to individual cities) and capping the frequency with which end users will be delivered the same advert; no minimum spend for advertisers, which makes Casale Media accessible to smaller businesses. Research Casale Media More information about Casale Media
A case was a British measurement of annatto equivalent to about 2.25 hundred weight, in use during the 19th century.
In grammar, case is a term indicating certain relationships in which nouns and pronouns may stand as regards other words, and which are often marked by special forms or inflections. A word that is the subject of a verb is generally said to be in the nominative case, one that is an object in the objective or accusative case. In English these two cases are alike except in pronouns, the only inflected noun-case in English being the possessive. English pronouns have three cases - nominative, possessive, and objective, as he, his, him. In Sanskrit there are eight cases. In French, Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese there are no case-forms. In German there are four cases, nominative, genitive, dative, accusative.
In law a case is a cause or action, or a statement on which a decision is to be given. Research Case
A cask was a British unit of measurement of arsenic equivalent to about 4 hundred weight, in use during the 19th century.
A cask was a British measure of cocoa equivalent to 1.25 hundred weight, in use during the 19th century. Research Cask
Cassier's Magazine was a magazine founded in 1891 by Louis Cassier, and published in New York as the first monthly publication devoted to purely engineering and scientific subjects. It was particularly noted for its illustrations. Research Cassier's Magazine
Cassina are an Italian furniture-making company. They were established in 1923 in Meda, Italy.
Cassina moved from craft to mass production after 1945 and successfully sold modern design to a sophisticated international niche market, using designers such as Franco Albini, Gio Ponti and Vico Magistretti. Ponti's 'Superleggera' chair of 1957 was among the most successful of Cassina's products. Research Cassina
Cassiopeia is a conspicuous constellation in the northern hemisphere, situated next to Cepheus, and often called the Lady in her Chair. It contains fifty-five stars, five of which, arranged in the form of a 'W', are of the third magnitude. Research Cassiopeia
Caste is an Indian hereditary class system with members socially equal, united in religion and usually following the same trade. A member of one caste has no social intercourse with a member of any other caste except their own. There are four main groups: Brahmans (priests), Kshatriyas (nobles and warriors), Vaisyas (traders and farmers) , and Sudras (servants); plus a fifth group, Harijan (untouchables) with hundreds of subdivisions existing within each caste. No upward or downward mobility exists, as in socially classed societies.
The system of caste dates from ancient times, and there are more than 3,000 subdivisions. In Hindu tradition, the four main castes are said to have originated from the head, arms, thighs, and feet respectively of Brahma, the creator; the members of the fifth were probably the aboriginal inhabitants of the country, known variously as Scheduled Castes, Oppressed Classes, Untouchables, or Harijan (a name ironically coined by Gandhi meaning 'children of God' - ironically because Ghandi suppressed the Untouchable uprising which was demanding equality and actively promoted the continued abuse of the Untouchables). This lowest caste handles animal products, rubbish, and human wastes and are considered to be polluting by touch, or even by sight, to others. Discrimination against them was supposedly made illegal 1947 when India became independent, but persists, with millions of Untouchables being treated inhumanely and as virtual slaves, being beaten, raped and murdered should they 'forget their place' and perhaps use a village well reserved for all other castes. Members of the Untouchable caste are segregated from the rest of society, and forced to live in appalling conditions, some scratching a living by cleaning the sewers, others by foraging for food scraps from rubbish bins. Research Caste
A casting-vote is the vote of a presiding officer in an assembly or council which decides a question when the votes of the assembly or house are equally divided between the affirmative and negative. Research Casting-Vote
Castor is a star (Alpha Geminorum) of magnitude 1.6, the fainter star of the zodiacal constellationGemini, or the Twins. In 1719 it was discovered to be a visual binary star, with components of magnitudes 2.8 and 2.0 separated by 6 seconds of arc and revolving around each other in about 350 years. Each of these components has been found to be a spectroscopic binary. In addition, a faint companion, separated from the other two by 72 sec of arc, has been discovered. This star is also a spectroscopic binary, the two components of which revolve around each other in about one day. Hence, the entire system of the star Castor contains at least six stars. Its distance is about 45 light- years from the earth. Research Castor
Castration is the act of depriving a male animal of the testicles. It is practised on domestic animals (as oxen, horses, cats and dogs) with the object of rendering them more submissive and docile, etc. Men who are castrated are known as eunuchs. Research Castration
Casuistry is the science which deals with difficult cases of conscience - i.e. which undertakes to apply acknowledged principles of conduct to doubtful cases, or cases where there seems to be a conflict of duties. The science was developed systematically by the medieval church in the 14th and 15th centuries. There have been many celebrated casuists among the Jesuits - for example, Escobar, Sanchez, Busembaum, etc. - famous for their ingenuity and the fine-spun sophistry of their solutions. Research Casuistry
A cat burglar is a burglar characterised by climbing buildings so as to enter through the upper levels, as distinct from a common burglar who breaks in through any convenient point. Research Cat Burglar
The cat and fiddle is a popular British public house sign. The sign owes its origins to being a corruption of Caton le fidele which actually means Caton, governor of Calais, and not the cat and the fiddle! Research Cat and Fiddle
Catachresis is a figure in rhetoric, when a word is too far wrested from its true signification; as, to speak of tones being made more palatable for 'agreeable to the ear.' So in Scripture we read of the blood of the grape. The term is also used in philolology for the employment of a word under a false form through misapprehension in regard to its origin; thus crayfish or crawfish has its form by catachresis. Research Catachresis
Catacombs ( derived from the Greek kata, meaning down, and kumbos, meaning a hollow or recess) are caves or subterranean places for the burial of the dead, the bodies being placed in graves or recesses hollowed out in the sides of the cave. Caves of this kind were common amongst the Phoenicians, Greeks, Persians, and many oriental nations.
In Sicily and Asia Minor numerous excavations have been discovered containing sepulchres, and the catacombs near Naples are remarkably extensive. Those of Rome, however, are the most important. The catacumbae is said to have been originally applied to the district near Rome which contains the chapel of St Sebastian, in the vaults of which, according to tradition, the body of St Peter was first deposited; but (besides its general application) it is now applied in a special way to all the extensive subterranean burial-places in the neighbourhood of Rome, which extend underneath the town itself as well as the neighbouring country, and are said to contain not less than 6,000,000 tombs. They consist of long narrow galleries usually about 2.4 metres high and 1.5 metres wide, which branch off in all directions, forming a perfect maze of corridors. Different stories of galleries lie one below the other. Vertical shafts run up to the outer air, thus introducing light and air, though in small quantity.
The graves or loculi lie longwise in the galleries. They are closed laterally by a slab, on which there is occasionally a brief inscription or a symbol, such as a dove, an anchor, or a palm-branch, and sometimes both. The earliest that can be dated with any certainty belongs to the year 111 AD. It is now regarded as certain that in times of persecution the early Christians frequently took refuge in the catacombs, in order to celebrate there in secret the ceremonies of their religion; but it is not less certain that the catacombs served also as ordinary places of burial to the early Christians, and were for the most part excavated by the Christians themselves.
In early times rich Christians constructed underground burying-places for themselves and their brethren, which they held as private property under the protection of the law. But in course of time, partly by their coming under the control of the church and partly by accidents of proprietorship, these private burying-grounds were connected with each other, and became the property, not of particular individuals, but of the Christian community. In the 3rd century AD there were already several such common burying-places belonging to the Christian congregations, and their number went on increasing until the time of Constantine, when the catacombs ceased to be used as burying-places.
From the time of Constantine down to the 8th century they were used only as places of devotion and worship. But their use as formal places of worship can only have been occasional, for the limited dimensions even of the largest rooms, and the extreme narrowness of the passages, must have made it impossible for any large number to take efficient part in the services at one time. But though the idea of the catacombs as regular places of worship may be carried too far, there is no doubt, from the episcopal chairs, altars, basins, etc, found within them, and from the subjects of the mosaics and carvings on the walls, that the rites of the church, and particularly the eucharist and the sacrament of baptism, were often celebrated there.
They could never have cerved as dwelling-places for any length of time to the Christians, residence in most of them for more than a short time being very dangerous to the health.
During the siege of Rome by the Lombards in the 8th century the catacombs were in part destroyed, and soon became entirely inaccessible, so that they were forgotten, and only the careful and laborious investigations of archaeologists, amongst whom De Rossi (Roma Sotterranea) and Parker (The Catacombs) may be mentioned, have thrown anything like a complete light on the origin and history of the catacombs.
There are extensive catacombs at Paris, consisting of old quarries from which has been obtained much of the material for the building of the city. In them are accumulated bones removed from cemeteries now built over. Research Catacomb
A catafalco or catafalque is a temporary and ornamental structure, representing a tomb placed over the coffin of a distinguished person or over a grave. Research Catafalco
A catafalque is a temporary and ornamental structure, representing a tomb, placed over the coffin of a distinguished person or over a grave. Research Catafalque
A catamite is a young boy kept for homosexual sex by an older man. The practice occurred in ancient Greece, where older men would take boys with the parents permission as homosexual lovers, and in return ensured the boy received an education, thereby relieving the parents of the financial burden of paying for the boy's education. The ancient Mayas provided single young men with a slave boy for sex, so as to protect other men's wives and the women from the attentions of overly-anxious young single men. Research Catamite
Catechetical Schools are institutions for the education of Christian teachers, of which there were many in the Eastern Church from the 2nd to the 5th century. The first and most renowned were those formed at Alexandria between 160 and 400) on the model of the fanous Greek schools. Research Catechetical Schools
A catechism is an elementary book containing a number of principles in any science or art, but originally particularly in religion, reduced to the form of questions and answers.
The first regular catechisms appear to have been compiled in the 8th and 9th centuries, those by Kero of St Gall and Otfried of Weissenburg being most famous. In the Roman Catholic Church each bishop has the right to make a catechism for his diocese. But in modern times Roman Catholic catechisms are generally a pretty close copy of the one drawn up by the Council of Trent and published in 1566, of which an English translation was issued in London in 1687 under the patronage of James II.
Among Protestants the catechisms of Luther (1518, 1520, and 1529) acquired great celebrity, and continue to be used in Germany, though not exclusively. Calvin's smaller and larger catechisms (1536-1539) never gained the popularity of those of Luther.
The catechism of the Church of England is contained in the Book of Common Prayer. In the First Book of Edward VI, 1549, it contained merely the baptismal vow, the creed, the ten commandments, and the Lord's prayer, with explanations, the part relative to the sacraments being subjoined during the reign of James I.
The catechism of the Church of Scotland is that agreed upon by the Assembly of Divines at Westminster, with the assistance of commissioners from the Church of Scotland, and approved of by the General Assembly in the year 1648. What is called the Shorter Catechism is merely an abridgment of the Larger, and is the one in most common nse. The best-known catechism among English Protestant Dissenters was that of Dr. Watts; but the use of catechisms is far from usual amongst them.
Catechisms remained quite rare, until the format was adopted by the computer industry in the form of the FAQ (frequently asked questions). Research Catechism
In logic, a category, or predicament, is an assemblage of all the beings contained under any genus or kind ranged in order. The ancients, following Aristotle, held that all beings or objects of thought may be referred to ten categories: quantity, quality, relation, action, passion, time, place, situation, and habit. Plato admits only five: substance, identity, diversity, motion, and rest; the Stoics four: subjects, qualities, independent circumstances, relative circumstances. Descartes suggested seven divisions: spirit, matter, quantity, substance, figure, motion, and rest. Others make but two categories, substance and attribute, or subject and accident; or three, accident being divided into the inherent and circumstantial.
In the philosophy of Kant the term categories is applied to the primitive conceptions originating in the understanding independently of all experience (hence called pure conceptions), though incapable of being realized in thought except in their application to experience. These he divides into four classes, quantity, quality, relation, and modality, placing under the first class the conceptions of unity, plurality, and totality; under the second, reality, negation, and limitation; under the third, inherence and subsistence, causality and dependence, and community (mutual action); and under the fourth, possibility and impossibility, existence and non-existence, necessity and contingency. J S Mill applies the term categories to the most general heads under which everything that may be asserted of any subject may be arranged. Of these he makes five, existence, co-existence, sequence, causation, and resemblance, or, considering causation as a peculiar case of sequence, four. Research Category
Catgut is a cord made from the intestines of sheep, and sometimes from those of the horse, ass, and mule, but not from those of cats. The manufacture is chiefly carried on in Italy and France by a tedious process. Catgut for stringed instruments, as violins and harps, is made principally in Milan and Naples, the latter having a high reputation for treble strings. Research Catgut
Catholic Emancipation was the abolition of those civil and ecclesiastical restraints to which the Roman Catholics of Great Britain, and particularly of Ireland, were once subjected. By the statutes of William III. Roman Catholics were forbidden to hold property in land, and their spiritual instructors were open to the penalties of felony; and although latterly these restrictions had not been enforced, they remained unrepealed in England until 1778. The proposal to repeal similar enactments on the Scotch statute-books was delayed by the strenuous opposition of the Protestant associations, in connection with which the Lord Gordon riots occurred. In 1791, however, a bill was passed allowing Roman Catholics who took the oath of allegiance to hold landed property, enter the legal profession, and enjoy freedom of education.
In Ireland the Roman Catholics had been even more unjustly treated. Their public worship was proscribed, all offices and the learned professions were closed against them, they were deprived of the guardianship of their children, and if they had landed estates they were forbidden to marry Protestants. Burke and a strong body of followers took up their cause, and in 1792 and 1793 the worst of the disabilities were removed by the Irish parliament. Restraints on worship, education, and disposition of property were removed; they were admitted to the franchise, and to some of the higher civil and military offices, and to the honours and endowments of the Dublin University. They continued to be excluded, however, from thirty public offices, and from parliament = an arrangement which could not be changed without a repeal of the Corporation and Test Acts. It was part of Pitt's scheme when the union with Ireland was formulated in 1799 to admit Irish Roman Catholics to the parliament of the United Kingdom and to offices of state.
To this proposal, however, George III. was strongly hostile, and in 1801 Pitt was compelled to resign. Between that year and 1828 numerous attempts were made to abolish remaining disabilities, but without success, the Lords throwing out the bills passed latterly in the Commons, and George IV proving not less unyielding than his father. At length, on April the 10th 1829 an emancipation bill was carried through the Commons by Mr. Peel, and through the Lords by the Duke of Wellington. By this act Catholics became eligible to all offices of state, excepting the lord-chancellorships of England and Ireland, the lord-lieutenancy of Ireland, the office of regent or guardian of the United Kingdom, and that of High Commissioner to the Church of Scotland. They were still excluded from the right of presentation to livings, and all places connected with the ecclesiastical courts and establishment. The church patronage attached to any office in the hands of a Catholic was vested in the Archbishop of Canterbury. Attached to the bill was a clause for the gradual suppression of the Jesuits and monastic orders (religious establishments of females excepted). During the 20th century full emancipation was realised. Research Catholic Emancipation
The Cato Street Conspiracy was a plot to murder British ministers in 1820. Arthur Thistlewood, who had already been mixed up with revolutionary projects, conceived a plan for assassinating Lord Castlereagh and his ministerial colleagues at a dinner in Grosvenor Square, London on February 23rd. Arms were collected in a hired rendezvous in the neighbouring Cato Street. The plot was discovered, and Thistlewood and his colleagues (Brunt, Davidson, Harrison, Ings, Monument, Tidd and Wilson) were arrested (Arthur Thistlewood escaped at the time, but was arrested the next day). All eight were sent to the Tower of London and Thistlewood and four others were hanged for high treason on May the 1st 1820. Research Cato Street Conspiracy
Caucus is a term, originally American, for a private meeting of citizens to agree upon candidates to be proposed for election to offices or to concert measures for supporting a party. In Britain the term is applied to the system of political organization of which the Birmingham Liberal Association was a former typical type, where all electioneering business is managed by a representative committee of voters. Its origin is referred to a fray between some British soldiers and Boston rope-makers in 1770, which resulted in democratic meetings of rope-makers and caulkers, called by the Tories (or Loyalists) caucus meetings. Research Caucus
A cause is that which produces an effect; that from which anything proceeds and without which it would not exist. In the system of Aristotle the word rendered by cause and its equivalents in modern language has a more extensive signification. He divides causes into four kinds: efficient, formal, material, and final. The efficient or first cause is the force or agency by which a result is produced; the formal, the means or instrument by which it is produced; the material, the substance from which it is produced; the final, the purpose or end for which it is produced. In a general sense the term is used for the reason or motive that urges, moves, or impels the mind to act or decide. Research Cause
A cave, or cavern is an opening of some size in the solid crust of the earth beneath the surface. Caves are principally met with in limestone rocks, sometimes in sandstone and in volcanic rocks. Some of them have a very grand or picturesque appearance, such as Fingal's Cave in Staffordshire, others, such as the Mammoth Cave of Kentucky, which incloses an extent of about 40 miles of subterranean windings, are celebrated for their great size and subterranean waters, others for their gorgeous stalactites and stalagmites; others are of interest to the geologist and archaeologist from the occurrence in them of osseous remains of animals no longer found in the same region, perhaps altogether extinct, or for the evidence their clay floors and rudely-sculptured walls, and the prehistoric implements and human bones found in them, offer of the presence of early man.
Caves in which the bones of extinct animals are found owe their origin, for the most part, to the action of rain-water on limestone rocks. The deposit contained in them usually consists of clay, sand, and gravel combined. In this are embedded the animal remains, and stones either angular or rounded. Some of the remains found in European caverns belong to animals now found only in the tropical or subtropical regions, and others are the remains of animals now living in more northerly areas; others, again, are the relics of extinct animals. Among the latter class of animals are the cave bear and lion, the mammoth and mastodon, species of rhinoceros, etc. Of others that have only migrated may be mentioned the reindeer, which is no longer found in Southern Europe; and the Hyoena crocuta, found in the Gibraltar caves, which now lives in South Africa. The ibex, the chamois, and a species of ground squirrel, are shown to have once lived in the Dordogne, but are now found only on the heights of the Alps and Pyrenees.
Thus it is evident that the geographical conditions of the country must have been very different from what they are now. Man's relation to these extinct animals, and his existence at the time these changes took place, are demonstrated by such discoveries as those of human bones and worked flints beneath layers of hyena droppings, as in Wokey's Hole, near Wells, England; mixed up indiscriminately, as in Kent's Hole, near Torquay, with bones of elephant, rhinoceros, hyena, etc; and by the fact that many bones of the extinct animals are split up, evidently for the sake of the marrow.
In law a caveat is a process in a court to stay proceedings until the party entering the caveat has had an opportunity of putting forward his objection, as in proceedings about to be taken under a disputed will; to prevent the patenting of an invention, or the enrolment of a decree in chancery, in order to gain time to present a petition of appeal to the lord-chancellor; etc. Research Caveat
Cavendish is softened tobacco which has been sweetened with molasses and then pressed into cakes. Cavendish was first manufactured in the USA by a company called Cavendish. Research Cavendish
Cawnpore is a town in India, on the right bank of the Ganges. In 1857 the native regiments stationed here mutinied and marched off, placing themselves under the command of the Rajah of Bithoor, the notorious Nana Sahib. General Wheeler, the commander of the European forces, defended his position for some days with great gallantry, but, pressed by famine and loss of men, was at length induced to surrender to the rebels on condition of his party being allowed to quit the place uninjured. This was agreed to but after the European troops, with the women and children, had been embarked in boats on the Ganges, they were treacherously fired on by the rebels; many were killed, and the remainder conveyed back to the city, where the men were massacred and the women and children placed in confinement. The approach of General Havelock to Cawnpore roused the brutal instincts of the Nana, and he ordered his hapless prisoners to be slaughtered, and their bodies to be thrown into a well. The following day he was obliged, by the victorious progress of Havelock, to retreat to Bithoor. Research Cawnpore Mutiny
In Roman antiquity, the Celeres were a body of 300 horsemen, formed by Romulus from the wealthier citizens. Their number was afterwards augmented, and they are thought to have been the origin of the equites. Research Celeres
Celibacy is the state of being celibate or unmarried, the term being especially applied to the voluntary life of abstinence from marriage followed by many religious devotees and by some orders of clergy, as those of the Roman Catholic Church.
The ancient Egyptian priests preserved a rigid chastity; the priestesses of ancient Greece and Rome were pledged to perpetual virginity; and celibacy was for long the rule with the Buddhist priests of the East. Among Christians the earliest aspirants to the spiritual perfection supposed to be attainable through celibacy were not ecclesiastics as such, but hermits and anchorites who aimed at superior sanctity. During the first three centuries the marriage of the clergy was freely permitted, but by the Council of Elvira in 305 continence was enjoined on all who served at the altar. For centuries this subject led to many struggles in the church, but was finally settled by Gregory VII positively forbidding the marriage of the clergy. The Council of Trent in 1593 confirmed this rule. In the Greek Church celibacy is not compulsory on the ordinary clergy. Protestants hold that there is no moral superiority in celibacy over marriage, and that the church has no right to impose such an obligation on any class of her ministers. Research Celibacy
A cellaret is a receptacle, usually in a dining room, for a few bottles of wine or liquor, made in the form of a chest or coffer, or a deep drawer in a sideboard, and usually lined with metal. Research Cellaret
Celts (named from the Late Latin celtis, a chisel), is the name given to certain prehistoric weapons or other implements of stone or bronze which have been found over nearly the whole surface of the earth. Stone celts are found in the form of hatchets, adzes, chisels, etc. In size they vary, some being found only about one inch in length, and others approaching two feet; but the most common length is from six to eight inches, and the breadth is usually about half or one third of the length. The materials of which they are made are flint, chert, clay-slate, porphyry, various kinds of greenstone and of metamorphic rocks, and, in short, any very hard and durable stone.
Bronze celts belong to a later period than stone ones, and are not so numerous. Some stone celts, however, have been found along with bronze celts in such a manner as to show that stone celts were still used when the method of working bronze had been discovered. Bronze celts are not found so large as the largest stone celts, the largest bronzecelt being under one foot; but the average size of a bronzecelt is about the same as that of a stone, namely about six inches. Research Celts
A cenotaph is a monument erected in honour of a deceased person, but not containing his body. The Greeks erected cenotaphs, and a number were built in England after the Great War, the most famous is in Whitehall, London which was designed by Sir E Luytens and unveiled by the King on Armistice Day (11th November 1920). Research Cenotaph
A censer is a vase or pan in which incense is burned; a vessel for burning and wafting incense. Among the ancient Jews the censer was used to offer perfumes in sacrifices. Censers, called also thuribles, are still used in the Roman Catholic Church at mass, vespers, and other offices, as well as in some Anglican and other churches. They are of various forms. In Shakespeare's time the term was applied to a bottle perforated and ornamented at the top, used for sprinkling perfume, or to a pan for burning any odoriferous substance. Research Censer
Censorship of books is the supervision of books by some authority so as to settle what may be published. After the invention of printing the rapid diffusion of opinions by means of books induced the governments in all countries to assume certain powers of supervision and regulation with regard to printed matter. The popes were the first to institute a regular censorship. By a bull of Leo X. in 1515 the bishops and inquisitors were required to examine all works before they were printed, with a view to prevent the publication of heretical opinions. As this decree could not be carried out in countries which had accepted the reformed religion, they prepared a list of prohibited books (known as the Index Librorum Prohibitorum), books, that is, which nobody was allowed to read under penalty of the censure of the church. This index continued to be reprinted and revised as late as 1906, as well as another index commonly called the Index Expurgatorius, containing the works which may be read if certain expurgations have been made.
In England the censorship was established by act of parliament in 1662, but before that both the well-known Star-chamber and the parliament itself had virtually performed the functions. In 1694 the censorship in England ceased entirely. In France the censorship, like so many other institutions, was annihilated by the revolution. During the republic there was no formal censorship, but the supervision of the directory virtually took its place, and at length in 1810 Napoleon openly restored it under another name (Direction de rimprimerie). After the restoration it underwent various changes, and was re-established by Napoleon III, but again abolished. In the old German empire the diet of 1530 instituted a severe superintendence of the press, but in the particular German states the censure was very differently applied, and in Protestant states especially it was never difficult for individual authors to obtain exemption. In 1849 the censorial laws were repealed, but were again gradually introduced, and still existed in a modified form in most of the German states in 1906. The censorship was abolished in Denmark in 1770, in Sweden in 1809, in the Netherlands in 1815. Research Censorship of Books
The census is a questionnaire issued every ten years in Britain which gathers detailed figures concerning the population, classified according to sex, age, occupation, size of families and geographical distribution.
The Roman census was a registered statement of the particulars of a person's property for taxation purposes; an enumeration and register of the Roman citizens and their property. The Roman census was introduced by King Servius Tullius in 577 BC.
The first census of Great Britain was taken in 1801, and a census has been taken every ten years since that date. The first census that was attempted in Ireland was that of 1811, but the census of that country taken in 1831 is regarded as the first on which reliance can be placed. The first census of the entire British empire was not taken until 1871. The first authentic census in France appears to have been that of 1700; since 1822 it has been taken every five years. The first census in Russia was taken by order of Peter the Great in 1723, and it was decreed that it should be repeated every twenty years. It now takes place more frequently. In Prussia the practice of taking a census of the population dates from the time of Frederick the Great. The first census of the new German Empire was taken in 1871, since when there has been a census every five years. In the United States of America, Switzerland, Sweden, Norway, Holland, Belgium, and Portugal, a census is taken every ten years. The facts brought out by the census differ in different countries. Research Census
The cental was a weight of 100 pounds legal in Britain since 1879 and used primarily for corn. The term was invented by Danson, a barrister, in order to meet the need for a uniform measure in the Liverpool corn trade. It was first introduced in February 1859, and legalised twenty years later. Research Cental
Centaurus (the Centaur) is a southern constellation, which is visible chiefly south of the equator. The brightest star in this constellation, Alpha Centauri, is also the third brightest star in the sky. It is about 4.3 light-years from the earth and is the closest visible star to the earth's solar system. The star is actually a double star, with a third star, Proxima Centauri, revolving around the others. Research Centaurus
The Centennial Exhibition was an international exhibition of arts, manufactures and products of the soil and mines held at Fairmount Park, Philadelphia, during the summer of 1876. It was the first international exhibition held in the USA, and was also an anniversary exhibition of the world's progress in the hundredth year of the existence of the USA. The exhibition was proposed by the citizens of Philadelphia in 1870. In 1872 Congress permitted the appointment of a Board of Finance. This board raised a capital stock of $10,000,000 from among the citizens of Philadelphia. Congress afterwards appropriated $2,000,000 as a loan; the State of Pennsylvania $1,000,000, and Philadelphia $1,500,000. Many European and other foreign countries sent exhibits, which were admitted free of duty under bond. The exhibition was open from May the 10th until November the 10th. The paid admissions numbered 8,000,000. Research Centennial Exhibition
A cento is a poem formed out of verses taken from one or more poets, so arranged as to form a distinct poem. CENTO (Central Treaty Organisation) was a defensive union of the 1950s to 1970s comprising the member states of the USA, UK, Iran, Iraq, Pakistan and Turkey with the aim of meeting a Communist attack on one of the member states. Iraq withdrew in 1958 and Pakistan in 1972 before the organisation was dissolved. Research Cento
The Central Criminal Court was set up in 1834 in the Old Bailey, which stands on the site of old Newgate Prison. Here serious criminal cases from London and the surrounding areas are heard. Research Central Criminal Court
Centralization is a term in a specific sense applied to a system of government where the tendency is to administer by the central government matters which had been previously, or might very well be, under the management of local authorities. Research Centralization
Ceres is a planet with a diameter of 256 km which was discovered on the 1st of January 1801 by Giuseppe Piazzi at Palermo. It was named Ceres after the goddess Ceres who was so highly esteemed by the ancient Sicilians. Research Ceres
In law, a certiorari is a writ issuing out of a superior court to call up the records of an inferior court or remove a cause there depending, that it may be tried in the superior court. This writ is obtained upon the complaint of a party that he has not received justice, or that he cannot have an impartial trial in the inferior court. Research Certiorari
A chaff-cutter is an agricultural instrument for chopping hay or straw into half-inch lengths to be used as food for animals. The economical advantage of the chaff-cutter does not depend on its rendering the chopped food more digestible; but on permitting it to be more thoroughly mixed with the more nutritive and palatable food, and preventing the animal from rejecting any part of it. By the use of the chaff-cutter animals are therefore induced to consume a much larger proportion of fodder with their food, which not only improves the condition of the stock, but saves time in feeding, thus allowing the animal more time for repose. Research Chaff-Cutter
The chain is a unit of the imperial scale of measurement of length equivalent to 22 yards or 20.168 metres. A chain is comprised of 100 links, each 7.92 inches long. 10 chains equal one furlong, and 10 square chains equal one acre. It is sometimes called Gunter's chain, from its inventor. Research Chain
In arithmetic, a chain rule is a theorem for solving numerical problems by the composition of ratios, or compound proportion, by which, when several ratios of equality are given, the consequent of each being the same as the antecedent of the next, the relation between the first antecedent and the last consequent is discovered. Research Chain Rule
The Chair of St Peter at Rome is a wooden chair overlaid with ivory work and gold, first mentioned by Ennodius in 500, and in honour of which a feast was instituted by Paul IV in 1558. Research Chair of St Peter
The chalder was a Scottish dry measure containing 16 bolls, equivalent to 12 imperial quarters. It was originally used in weighing grain. Research Chalder
The chaldron is an old English unit of capacity measurement equivalent to 36 bushels. It was used as a measure of coal in England, equal to 6,800 lbs. Research Chaldron
A chalice is a ceremonial cup, the term being particularly applied to the cup used for the wine at the celebration of the Eucharist. In early ages the chalice was commonly made of glass or wood, occasionally of gold or silver, with a representation frequently of the Good Shepherd carrying the lost sheep on His back. Special care was taken that the brim of the chalice should not turn down.
In the Council of Rheims, held under Leo III in 847, the use of wood or glass for the chalice and paten was expressly forbidden, and they were commanded to be of gold or silver. (Canon 45.) That this prohibition did not originally exist is clear from the preceding canon, c. 44, and is sufficiently shown by Bingham, who mentions also that 'in one of our own Synods here in England, the Synod of Calcuth, in Northumberland 787, there is a canon which forbids the use of horn cups in the celebration of the Eucharist, which seems to imply that they were in use before'. Research Chalice
The Challenger Expedition was a scientific and exploring expedition carried out at the expense of the British Government by means of the ship Challenger, a frigate-built vessel of about 2000 tons, fully equipped with all the most improved scientific appliances for ascertaining the depth, temperature, currents, etc, of the ocean, and the character of the ocean bottom, and for amassing natural history specimens. The ship set sail on December the 7th, 1872, under the command of Captain (afterwards Sir) George Nares, Professor (afterwards Sir) Wyville Thomson being at the head of the scientific staff attached to the ship. In the course of the expedition the ship called at Madeira, Teneriffe, the Bermudas, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Cape Verde Islands, Cape of Good Hope, Kerguelen Islands, Melbourne, Sydney, Hong Kong, Japan, Valparaiso, etc, returning home by way of the Strait of Magellan, and arriving on May the 24th, 1876. During the three and a half years of the cruise the ship traversed about 70,000 nautical miles, and a vast amount of highly useful information was accumulated, the results being published at government expense in a great many volumes. Several popular works on the expedition were also published. Research Challenger Expedition
Chambre Ardente was the name formerly given in France to an apartment, hung with black and lighted with tapers, in which sentence of death was pronounced on heinous offenders. The name was afterwards more especially given to those extraordinary tribunals which, from the time of Francis I, ferretted out heretics by means of a system of espionage, directed the proceedings against them, pronounced sentence, and also saw it carried into execution. Research Chambre Ardente
The chambre a crucer was an old tortuous method of execution in which the victim was packed in a heavy chest together with numerous sharp stones before being buried alive. Research Chambre a Crucer
Chance-Medley is a now obsolete legal term which has been replaced by the term 'manslaughter'. It described a homicide which occurred either in self-defence, on a sudden quarrel, or in the commission of an unlawful act without any deliberate intention of doing mischief. Research Chance-Medley
A changeling is a child substituted for another, usually at birth. There was formerly a belief that weak or peevish children were changelings, perhaps swapped by fairies or other evil spirits. Research Changeling
Chap-Books were a type of cheap literature coarsely printed (and often coarsely written) and so called because they were prepared by the popular publishers to be sold cheaply by chapmen and peddlers who hawked them from district to district for one or two pennies. They contained stories and biographies of a generally popular nature, such as tales of roguery and broad humour, witch and ghost stories, etc and were the fore runners of modern periodicals. Research Chap-Book
A chaplet is a string of beads used by Roman Catholics to count the number of their prayers. A chaplet is a third of a rosary, and usually consists of fifty-five beads. Research Chaplet
Chariot is a term applied to horse-drawn vehicles used both for pleasure and in war. Ancient chariots, such as those used among the Egyptians, Assyrians, Greeks, and Romans, were of various forms. A common form was open behind and closed in front, and had only two wheels.
The chariot was strongly and even elegantly built, but not well adapted for speed. In ancient warfare chariots were of great importance; thus we read of the 900 iron chariots of Sisera, as giving him a great advantage against the Israelites. The Philistines in their war against Saul had 30,000 chariots.
The sculptures of ancient Egypt show that the chariots formed the strength of the Egyptian army, these vehicles being two - horsed and carrying the driver and the warrior, sometimes a third man, the shield-bearer. There is no representation of Egyptian soldiers on horseback, and consequently when Moses in his song of triumph over Pharaoh speaks of the horse and his rider, rider must be understood to mean chariot-rider. In the Egyptian chariots the framework, wheels, pole, and yoke were of wood, and the fittings of the inside, the bindings of the framework, as well as the harness were chiefly of raw hide or of tanned leather.
We have also numbers of sculptures which give a clear idea of the Assyrian chariots. These resembled the Egyptian in all essential features, containing almost invariably three men - the warrior, the shield-bearer, and the charioteer. A peculiarity of both is the quiver or quivers full of arrows attached to the side. The Assyrian war-chariot was drawn by three horses abreast, and all the appointments were rich and elaborate. It had two quivers crossing each other on the side, filled with arrows, and each also containing a small axe. A socket for holding the spear was also attached. From the front of the chariot a singular ornamental appendage stretched forward.
War-chariots had sometimes scythe-like weapons attached to each extremity of the axle, as among the ancient Persians and Britons. Among the Greeks and Romans chariot-races were common.
In Britain the name chariot was formerly given to a kind of light travelling carriage. Research Chariot
The Charles River Bridge Case was an important American Supreme Court case. In 1785 the Legislature of Massachusetts incorporated a company to build a bridge over the Charles River from Charlestown to Boston, granting tolls. In 1828 the Legislature granted the incorporation of another company to build what is known as the Warren Bridge, which was eventually to be free. The first company brought suit in the Supreme Court of Massachusetts for an injunction to prevent the erection of the Warren Bridge, stating that the act of the Legislature incorporating the second company impaired the obligations of a contract made with the first company and was therefore repugnant to the National Constitution.
The Supreme Court of Massachusetts found judgment for the defendant, and this decision was confirmed by the Supreme Court of the United States in 1837, on the ground that a State law may be retrospective and may divest vested rights, without impairing contract. This was a limitation of the decision given in the Dartmouth College case. Research Charles River Bridge Case
A charm is anything believed to possess some occult or supernatural power, such as an amulet, spell, etc, but the term is properly applied (as the name, derived from the Latincarmen a song, indicates) to spells couched in formulas of words or verses. Research Charm
A charpoy is an Eastern small portable bed, consisting of a wooden frame resting on four legs, with bands across to support the bedding. Research Charpoy
A chart is a hydrographical or marine map, that is a draught or projection of some part of the earth's surface, with the coasts, islands, rocks, banks, channels, or entrances into harbours, rivers, and bays, the points of compass soundings, or depth of water, etc, to regulate the courses of ships in their voyages. The term chart is applied to a marine map; the term map is applied to a draught of some portion of land (often including sea also). A plane chart is one in which the meridians are supposed parallel to each other, the parallels of latitude at equal distances, and of course the degrees of latitude and longitude everywhere equal to each other. Research Chart
A charter is a written instrument, executed with usual forms, given as evidence of a grant, contract, or other important transaction between man and man. Royal charters are such as are granted by sovereigns to convey certain rights and privileges to their subjects, such as the Great Charter, granted by King John, and charters granted by various sovereigns to boroughs and municipal bodies, to universities and colleges, or to colonies and foreign possessions; somewhat similar to which are charters granted by the state or legislature to banks and other companies or associations, etc. Research Charter
Charterhouse is a celebrated school and charitable foundation in the city of London. It was built in 1371 as a priory for Carthusian monks by Sir Walter Manny. After the dissolution of the monasteries it passed through several hands until it came to Thomas Sutton who converted it into a hospital and school. In 1872 it was moved to Godalming and the premises in London sold to the MerchantTaylors' School. New buildings were erected at the original site in 1875.
The school has long had a high reputation. Among famous men who have received their education at the Charterhouse are Isaac Barrow, Addison, Steele, John Wesley, Blackstone, Grote, Thirlwall, Havelock, John Leech, and Thackeray. Research Charterhouse
A chartulary is a record or register in which the charters, title-deeds, etc, of any corporation were copied for safety and convenience of reference. They were often kept by private families. Research Chartulary
In Norman times, a chase (or chace) was a hunting ground stocked with beasts and under private, rather than royal ownership which was called a forest. A chase was protected only by common law. Research Chase
Chasing is the art of working decorative forms in low-relief in gold, silver or other metals. It is generally practised in connection with repousse work, in which the figures are punched out from behind and are then sculptured on the front or chased with the graver. Research Chasing
The Chatham Chest (later GreenwichChest) was a fund established in 1590 on the recommendation of Sir Francis Drake and Sir John Hawkins for the relief of sick and wounded seamen. The deduction of money from seamen's pay to the fund ceased in 1829 by which time the fund was practically merged in the general relief funds of the GreenwichHospital. Research Chatham Chest
Chattels are property movable and immovable, not being freehold. The word chattel is originally the same word with cattle, formed from the late Latin capitalia, meaning heads of cattle, from the Latin caput, head. Chattels are divided into real and personal. Chattels real are such as belong not to the person immediately, but dependently upon something, as an interest in a land or tenement, or a lease, or an interest in advowsoris. Any interest in land or tenements, for example, is a real chattel; so also is a lease, an interest in advowsons, and so forth. Chattels personal are goods which belong immediately to the person of the owner, and include all movable property. Research Chattels
Chauvinism is fanatical devotion to a cause, especially patriotism. The term comes from Nicholas Chauvin who was a soldier so enthusiastically devoted to Napoleon that his comrades ridiculed him. Research Chauvinism
The Cherokee Nation v Georgia was an important case heard before the US Supreme Court, and decided in 1831. By the Hopewell treaty of 1785 the United States recognized the Cherokees as a nation capable of making peace and war, of governing its citizens and of owning and governing its lands. About 1826 the Georgia Legislature through Governor Troup declared these treaties not. binding upon the State, on the ground that Georgia and the Federal Government were equal and independent powers, and that disputes between them could not be decided by the Supreme Court, but by negotiation.
In 1830 an act was passed by the Georgia Legislature authorizing a survey and apportionment of the Cherokeelands within the State, their gold mines were seized and they were considered under the Slaters dominion, thus ousting the Cherokees from the lands solemnly guaranteed by the United States. The Cherokees. applied to President Jackson without success. Then they tried the Supreme Court. This court decided them not a foreign State, capable of maintaining an action in the court, but a domestic, dependent nation. The injunction was refused and the Cherokees relegated to the mercy of Georgia. Later, in the case of Worcester v Georgia, State authority in such matters was denied by the Supreme Court, Federal treaties being declared to have precedence. Research Cherokee Nation v Georgia
On December the 10th 1778, the village of Cherry Valley in Central New York was destroyed by 700 Tories (supporters of the English king) and Indians. About fifty inhabitants were murdered without regard to age or sex. The massacre was typical of British methods against the colonists and further encouraged the American colonists desire to break away from British rule. Research Cherry Valley Massacre
In 1807 three Negro sailors deserted from the British man-of-war 'Melampus' and enlisted on the United States ship 'Chesapeake'. The British squadron was then just within the Virginia capes. The British admiral demanded a surrender of the sailors. This was refused by the US Government. Accordingly, on June the 22nd, as the 'Chesapeake', in a half-prepared condition, was sailing out from Hampton Roads, a lieutenant from the British ship 'Leopard' boarded her and again demanded the deserters. Upon being refused, CaptainHumphrey immediately opened fire upon the 'Chesapeake' which Commodore Barron, who was wholly unprepared, was compelled to surrender without firing a gun.
President Jefferson at once issued a proclamation demanding a disavowal of the act, the restoration of the captured sailors and the recall of Admiral Berkeley. Though some tardy reparation was made, the affair greatly exasperated American opinion against the British, and contributed to bring on the War of 1812. Research Chesapeake and Leopard Affair.
The term 'grinning like a Cheshire cat' is coined to describe a wide cheesy smile. The term originates from olden times when cheese was made in the form of cats in Cheshire, and hence the term provides the allusion to a cheesy grin. The phrase was popularised in the book 'Alice in Wonderland' where the character of the Cheshire cat, a cat with a persistent wide smile, occurs. Research Cheshire Cat
A chest was a British measurement of tea ranging from 80 to 84 lbs.
A chest was a British measure of clover equivalent to 200 lbs, in use during the 19th century. Research Chest
The Chevrolet Corvair was an American low-priced economy car produced from 1959 to 1969 in response to imports of European economy cars. The Chevrolet Corvair was produced in various models, including a four-door saloon and a convertible. They were powered by either a 2377 or 2684 cc air-cooled flat six engine rated at between 80 and 180 bhp providing a top speed of between 140 and 170 kmh. Research Chevrolet Corvair
The Chevrolet Corvette Stingray was an American sports car produced between 1963 and 1967. The Chevrolet Corvette Stingray was powered by a V-eight engine, varying in capacity between 5365 and 7000 cc and providing between 250 and 560 bhp, and a top speed of between 190 and 235 kmh depending upon engine. Research Chevrolet Corvette Stingray
Chevy Chase is the name of a celebrated British Border ballad, which is probably founded on some actual encounter which took place between its heroes, Percy and Douglas, although the incidents mentioned in it are not historical. On account of the similarity of the incidents in this ballad to those of The Battle of Otterbourne, the two ballads have often been confounded; but the probability is that if any historical event is celebrated at all in the ballad of Chevy Chase, it is different from that celebrated in The Battle of Otterbourne, and that the similarity between the two ballads is to be explained by supposing that many of the events of the former were borrowed from the latter. There are two versions of the ballad bearing the name of Chevy Chase, an older one, originally called The Hunting of the Cheviot, and a more modem one. From the fact that the older version is mentioned in the Complaynt of Scotland, written in 1548, it is clear that it was known in Scotland before that time. The age of the more modern version is believed to be no later than the reign of Charles II. This is the version which forms the subject of the critique by Addison in numbers 70 and 74 of the Spectator. Research Chevy Chase
In painting, chiaroscuro is the distribution of the lights and shadows in a picture. A composition, however perfect in other respects, becomes a picture only by means of the chiaroscuro, which gives faithfulness to the representation, and therefore is of the highest importance for the painter. The drawing of a piece may be perfectly correct, the colouring may be brilliant and true, and yet the whole picture remain cold and hard. By the chiaroscuro objects are made to advance or recede from the eye, produce a mutual effect, and form a united and beautiful whole. Research Chiaroscuro
Chica is a red colouring matter which the Indians on the upper parts of the Orinoco and the Rio Negro prepare from the leaves of a plant native to that region called Bignonia Chica, and with which they paint their skin, in order to be better able to resist the rays of the sun. Research Chica
The University of Chicago was first founded in 1857, but closed 1886 through financial troubles. In 1890 it was entirely reorganized, largely through the gifts of John D Rockefeller. Research Chicago University
The Chickasaw Case was a famous American court case in the anti-slavery campaign. In 1836 a writ of habeas corpus was served against CaptainEldridge of the brig 'Chickasaw' for holding two black women with the intent of carrying them South. The women were ordered discharged on their presenting free papers. This action against Eldridge resulted from the efforts of Northern people in organizing vigilance committees against kidnapping. Research Chickasaw Case
Childermas Day is an old English name for Innocents' Day, a festival celebrated by the Anglican Church and the Church of Borne on the 28th of December in commemoration of the massacre of the innocents (children) at Bethlehem by the order of Herod. Research Childermas Day
The Children of God is a religious movement, or more properly cult, founded by the late David Berg in 1969 after supposedly receiving a revelation from God that California was about to be devastated by an earth quake. The cult uses David Berg's own interpretation of the bible and insists that all new members sever all ties with their families and surrender their worldly belongings to the group and become full time evangelists. Berg introduced free consensual sexual activity among the membership encouraging fornication, adultery, lesbianism and incest with children as young as 18-months being sexually abused, with the approval of the cult.
In 1985, David Berg's daughter Deborah Davis published the book 'The Children of God: The Inside Story' in which she described how she and her sister had been sexually abused by their Father, and revealed some home truths about the cult. Cult members are forbidden to read the book, but many have and subsequently left the cult. Other strange ideas among the cult are that children are raised in groups by foster parents, the man being referred to as the 'shepherd', and the female children being encouraged to regularly perform oral sex on him. Women in the cult are forbidden to shave any part of their body, and all members are limited to three minutes shower time. Members are severely restricted in the possession of money, and denied access to newspapers, and television with occasional video rentals limited to 'approved' films. Members failing to speak in tongues are punished, leading many to learn gobbledegook and pretend to speak in tongues. Research Children Of God
Chimney money or hearth money was a former tax imposed on every fireplace in a house during the 17th century. The tax was repealed by William and Mary. Research Chimney Money
China Ink is a black solid, which, when rubbed down with water, forms a very pure black indelible ink. It has been used in China from time immemorial. There are different accounts of the process, but it appears to be made by boiling the juices of certain plants with water to a syrup, adding to this a quantity of gelatine, and then thoroughly incorporating the carbonaceous matter. There is generally added some perfume - a little musk or camphor. The mass is then made into square columns of different sizes, which are often decorated with figures and Chinese characters. Many attempts have been made to imitate Chinese ink, some of which have been tolerably successful. Good Chinese ink should have a velvety-black appearance, with a gloss which becomes very conspicuous on rubbing. The colour it gives on paper should be pure black and homogeneous, and if water be passed over it it should not run or become streaky. It is indelible by ordinary solvents, but may be removed sometimes mechanically. Research China Ink
The China League was founded in Britain in 1900 by members of parliament and others to promote intercourse with China and neighbouring countries, and bring these together in the interests of commerce and national development. Research China League
China Wax is a sort of wax deposited by insects on a deciduous tree with light-green ovate, serrated leaves, cultivated in the province of Sichuen in South-western China. The insects, a species of Coccus, are bred in galls which are formed on a different tree, an evergreen (a species of Ligustrum or privet), and these galls are transported in great quantities to the districts where the wax trees are grown, to the branches of which they are suspended. Having emerged from the galls the insects spread themselves over the branches, which gradually become coated with a white waxy substance, reaching in 90 or 100 days the thickness of a quarter of an inch. The branches are then lopped off and the wax removed. It is white in colour and is chiefly made into candles; it melts at 160 degrees whereas tallow melts at about 95 degrees Fahrenheit. Research China Wax
Chinaware is a name given to porcelain (pottery made from kaolin), so called from China being the first country to supply it to Europeans. It is thought that the Chinese produced porcelain from ancient times, but it wasn't until around 500 AD that they perfected the art. Chinaware first came to Europe in the beginning of the 16th century and won immediate popularity for its beauty and novelty.
The European consumers thought it impossible to match the whiteness of Chinaware, until John Frederick of Saxony, an alchemist, discovered a means of producing a porcelain equal in whiteness to the Chinaware. This led to the establishment by the Government of a factory at Meissen which started to produce porcelain rivalling the Chinaware in beauty and quality.
In France also about the middle of the 18th century the celebrated factory at Sevres was set up and soon acquired a great renown. In England a porcfaiain work was established at Chelsea some years prior to 1745; it was made at Stratford-le-Bow about the same time, at Derby as early as 1750, at Worcester in 1751. About 1755 kaolin or porcelain clay was discovered in Cornwall, and this contributed greatly to improve the quality of English porcelain, which began to be largely manufactured in Staffordshire under the auspices of Josiah Spode and Thomas Minton.
Chinaware, when broken, presents a granular surface with a compact, dense, firm, hard, vitreous and durable texture. It is semi-transparent, with a covering of white glaze, clear, smooth, unaffected by all acids except hydroflouric acid, and able to withstand sudden changes of temperature. Research Chinaware
The Chinese Exclusion Acts were several acts of the US government forbidding the immigration of Chinese labourers into the United States. The original act of 1882 forbade the immigration from 1882 to 1892. In 1892 another act was passed extending the ban until 1902, and again in1902 another act was passed further forbidding the immigration of Chinese labourers. Research Chinese Exclusion Act
Chinese glue is a superior glue and varnish obtained from a species of seaweed which abounds on the chores of China. When once dried it resists the action of water. Research Chinese Glue
Chinese red (also known as American vermillion, chrome red, Derby red and Persian red) is a red pigment comprised of chromate of lead. Research Chinese Red
The chinook is the warm dry wind at the eastern base of the Rocky Mountains, and presents the same features as the fohn winds of Switzerland. The chinook winds descend from the Rockies, and while they are chiefly found in Montana and Wyoming, they also extend from the southern part of Colorado up into Canada as far as the Arctic circle. The high temperatures are confined to the valleys, and occur in streaks or pockets so that a traveller frequently passes suddenly from a very warm to a very cold atmosphere. Research Chinook
The Chisholm Case was a legal proceeding in the USA that eventually led, through the enactment of the 11th Amendment to the US. Constitution, to a limitation on the jurisdiction of the federal courts. Decided in 1793 by the US. Supreme Court, the case of Chisholm v. Georgia (2 Dallas 419) was brought against the state of Georgia by Alexander Chisholm, a citizen of South Carolina, regarding an inheritance of which he was the legatee. The Supreme Court took jurisdiction under ArticleIII, Section 2, of the Constitution, which confers jurisdiction on the federal courts in cases between a state and citizens of another state. Georgia challenged both the right of citizens to sue state governments and the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court in such cases. The Supreme Court ruling affirmed the jurisdiction of the courts.
On March the 5th, 1794, Congress passed the 11th Amendment, which was ratified on February the 7th, 1795. It removed from the jurisdiction of the federal courts cases in which a citizen of one state is the plaintiff and the government of another state is the defendant; it limited the jurisdiction of the federal courts to cases in which the government of a state is the plaintiff and the citizen of another state is the defendant. Research Chisholm Case
Chitin is a sort of transparent horny substance, the chief tissue-forming ingredient of the wing-cases of insects, and the shells of crabs and other crustaceans. Research Chitin
Chivalry is a term which indicates strictly the organization of knighthood as it existed in the middle agea, and in a general sense the spirit and aims which distinguished the knights of those times. The chief characteristics of the chivalric ages were a warlike spirit, a lofty devotion to the female sex, a love of adventure, and an undefinable thirst for glory. The Crusades gave for a time a religious turn to the spirit of chivalry, and various religious orders of knighthood arose, such as the Knights of St John, the Templars, the Teutonic Knights, etc.
The education of a knight in the days of chivalry was as follows: In his twelfth year he was sent to the court of some baron or noble knight, where he spent his time chiefly in attending on the ladies, and acquiring skill in the use of arms, in riding, etc. When advancing age and experience in the use of arms had qualified the page for war, he became an esquire, or squire. This word is from the Latinscutum, a shield, it being among other offices the squire's business to carry the shield of the knight whom he served. The third and highest rank of chivalry was that of knighthood, which was not conferred before the twenty-first year, except in the case of distinguished birth or great achievements. The individual prepared himself by confessing, fasting, etc; religious rites were performed; and then, after promising to be faithful, to protect ladies and orphans, never to lie nor utter slander, to live in harmony with his equals, etc, he received the accolade, a slight blow on the neck with the flat of the sword from the person who dubbed him a knight. This was often done on the eve of battle, to stimulate the new knight to deeds of valour; or after the combat, to reward signal bravery.
The rules of chivalry only applied to the nobility. While knights on the battle field and in combat enjoyed rules of engagement and a degree of mutual respect - with the notable exception of the Battle of Agincourt where the captured French knights were murdered at the order of king Henry V - peasants, or the ordinary common folk, were slaughtered and raped by knights as though they were not human at all, and certainly not treated in a chivalrous fashion. Research Chivalry
A choir is a band or organised company of singers, especially in church service. The term is also used to describe that part of a church appropriated to the singers. Research Choir
A chondrite is a stony meteorite that contains tiny, more or less spherical inclusions, called chondrules, formed by rapid cooling of molten materials. The chondrules consist of minerals such as pyroxene as well as various iron minerals. Such meteorites are of scientific importance because many are thought to represent a record of conditions in the earliest days of the solar system. Research Chondrite
In the Church of England, a choral service is a service with intoned responses, and the use of music throughout wherever it is authorized. The service is said to be partly choral when only canticles, hymns, etc, are sung and wholly choral, when, in addition to these, the versicles, responses, etc, are also sung. Research Choral Service
In prosody, a choriambus is a foot consisting of four syllables, of which the first and last are long, and the others short; that is, a choreus or trochee, and an iambus united. Research Choriambus
In law, chose (from the French shoz meaning a thing) is a property, a right to possession; or that which may be demanded and recovered by suit or action at law. Thus, money due on a bond or recompense for damage done is a chose in action; the former proceeding from an express, the latter from an implied contract. A chose local is annexed to a place, as a mill or the like; a chose transitory is a thing which is movable. Research Chose
Chrism, so named from the Greek word for to anoint, is the holy oil prepared by the Roman Catholic bishops, and used in baptism, confirmation, the ordination of priests, and the extreme unction. Research Chrism
Christmas is the Christian celebration of the birth of their saviour, Jesus Christ. The festival we now call Christmas was adopted from earlier pagan winter solstice celebrations celebrating the sun, including the Roman festival of Saturnalia celebrated from December the 17th to the 24th; Celtic Yuletide which was a twelve-day long festival of feasting around November/December; the Roman New Year celebrated on January the first when lights and greenery were used to decorate houses in celebration of the birth of the undying sun, and presents were given to children and the poor. Other elements of modern Christmas celebrations are also adopted from earlier pagan celebrations: the Christmas tree as a fir tree originates with the Oak tree that was sacred to Odin in Norse and Germanic tradition, and which was replaced by the fir tree declared to be sacred to Jesus by St Boniface in Germany in the 8th century. Mistletoe and holly were sacred to the Druids who used them as decorations in their winter solstice celebrations to the sun around mid-December.
Christmas was first celebrated around the 2nd century on two dates depending upon church; the Roman catholic church adopting December the 25th and some other churches adopting January the 6th which around the 5th century became Epiphany. Christmas day was officially transferred to the 25th of December by Julius I, who died in 352. The Puritans suppressed Christmas celebrations in Britain and America on the justifiable grounds of their pagan origins, however since the 18th century when the first Christmas cards were produced by the company of Goodall of London in 1862, peoples of many cultures, including Jews have celebrated Christmas in a variety of religious, pagan and other ways, with today the Jehova's Witnesses being the only major Christian objectors to the celebration of Christmas - on the perfectly correct grounds that it is a pagan festival, and the irrefutable evidence suggests that Jesus was not born on December the 25th or even in the month of December.
Complaints about the commercialisation of Christmas are not new. In the 19th century Charles Dickens character 'Ebeneazer Scrooge' in the novel 'A Christmas Carol' complains that Christmas is a 'humbug' or in other words a con or a rip off, a sentiment widely echoed by shoppers in Britain at the end of the 20th century. Research Christmas
Christmas Cards are ornamental cards containing words of Christmas greeting to friends to whom they are sent. The first of them appeared about 1862, and consisted of pictures of robins, holly, etc. Within fourty years highly artistic designs were introduced, and their manufacture became a considerable industry in Germany, France, England, the USA etc with immense quantities of them passing through the post-office every Christmas. Research Christmas Card
Christmas-boxes are boxes in which presents were deposited at Christmas; hence a Christmas gift. The custom of bestowing Christmas-boxes arose in the early days of the church, when boxes were placed in the churches for the reception of offerings;
these boxes were opened on Christmas day, and their contents distributed by the priests the next day (boxing day). Research Christmas-Boxes
Chrome green is a composite pigment made by combining a small amount of Prussian blue with pale yellow chrome. Chrome green comes in various shades, all of which are opaque with good staining ability. Chrome green is fairly permanent, but tends to turn blue under the influence of weathering, and discolour upon contact with sulphur and alkalis. Chrome green darkens as it dries, making it a difficult pigment to colour match. Research Chrome Green
Chrome yellow is a chromate of lead, a beautiful pigment, varying in shade from deep orange to very pale canary yellow, much used in the arts. Research Chrome Yellow
A chronometer was any instrument that measures time, as a clock, watch, or dial; but, specifically, this term is applied to those time-keepers which were used for determining the longitude at sea, or for any other purpose where an accurate measure of time was required, with great portability in the instrument. The chronometer differed from the ordinary watch in the principle of its escapement, which was so constructed that the balance was free from the wheels during the greater part of its vibration, and also in being fitted with a compensation adjustment, calculated to prevent the expansion and contraction of the metal by the action of heat and cold from affecting its movements. Marine chronometers generally beat half-seconds, and were hung in gimbals in boxes 6 or 8 inches square. The pocket chronometer did not differ in appearance from a watch except that it was somewhat larger. Research Chronometer
Chryselephantine is a term meaning made of gold and ivory combined. The term is applied to statues executed in these two substances by the ancient Greeks, such as Pheidias's great statue of Athena. Research Chryselephantine
The Chubut was a government of the ArgentineRepublic with Rawson as its capital founded in 1865 by Welsh settlers. It was a chiefly cattle raising community comprised of Argentines, Italians, Welsh and native Indians. Research Chubut
Church ales were important social and money-raising functions in the Tudor and Stuart periods in England. The churchwardens at this time sold, or distributed free of charge, ale and food, sometimes in the church house or in a barn or in the church itself, with the purpose of attracting local residents where they might then be induced to pay the parish rates. Research Church Ale
In America, in 1631 a law was enacted by the Massachusetts Assembly, providing that no man should be a freeman of the colony unless he became a member of some church. This requirement was abolished under the charter of 1691. A similar rule prevailed in the New Haven colony between 1639 and 1662. Research Church Members' Suffrage
Churching of Women was a public thanksgiving after child-birth in the Roman Catholic and Anglican Churches, the latter having a special service in the Prayer Book. Research Churching of Women
A churn is a vessel in which milk or cream is agitated or beaten in order to separate the liquid from the solids, thereby leaving butter. Originally churns consisted of an upright wooden vessel in which the milk was agitated by a pole with a wooden disk at the lower end (known as a dasher). By the late 19th century churns were being made of metal, and were generally circular and fitted with rods inside known as dashers. Two methods of agitation were employed, sometimes the vessel was turned by way of a handle, and sometimes the dashers inside were turned by way of a handle. Research Churn
A cigar is a small roll of manufactured tobaccoleaves carefully made up, and intended to be smoked by lighting at one end and drawing the smoke through it. The best cigars are made in Havana, Cuba, and have been since at least the 19th century. Research Cigar
Cinderella is a fairy story about an abused scullery girl who lives with her wicked step-mother and two ugly step-sisters; who is invited to a royal ball, provided with a temporary enchantment of rich costume and coach and horses by a fairy god mother, while at the ball dances with the prince who falls in love with her, but leaving quickly before the enchantment wears off she leaves behind one of her slippers. The prince then endeavours to locate his love, which he does by having the girls of the neighbourhood try on the slipper until he finds the one girl the slipper fits. In English the slipper is referred to as a glassslipper, but this is a mistake in the story's translation. It should actually be a sableslipper, which were only worn by royalty - hence the fairy god mother gave the heroine of the story a pair of royal slippers to wear. Research Cinderella
The Cinematograph Films Act of 1927 was a British act of Parliament which came into force on April 1st 1928 for a ten year period until March 31st 1938. The act required that British renters of films included in their output a certain proportion of films made in the British Empire. Exhibitors of films were also required to show a proportion of British films. The proportions were on a sliding scale, gradually increasing over the ten year period. Research Cinematograph Films Act
A Cinerary urn is an urn in which the ashes of the dead were deposited after the body was burned. Many Greek and Roman urns are in a high style of art, and are formed of marble, glass, or potteryware. Research Cinerary Urn
Among the Romans, a circus was a nearly rectangular building without a roof, in which public chariot-races and exhibitions of pugilism and wrestling, etc, took place. It was rectangular, except that one short side formed a half-circle; and on both sides, and on the semicircular end, were the seats of the spectators, rising gradually one above another, like steps. On the outside the circus was surrounded with colonnades, galleries, shops, and public places. The largest of these buildings in Rome was the Circus Maximus, capable, according to Pliny, of containing 260,000, and according to Aurelius Victor, 385,000 spectators. At present, however, but few vestiges of it remain, and the circus of Caracalla is in the best preservation. The games celebrated in these structures were known collectively by the name of ludi circenses, circensian games, or games of the circus, which under the emperors attained the greatest magnificence.
The principal games of the circus were the ludi Romani or magni (Roman or Great Games), which were celebrated from the 4th to the 14th of September, in honour of the great gods, so called. The passion of the common or poorer class of people for these shows appears from the cry with which they addressed their rulers - panem et circenses (bread and the games!). The festival was opened by a splendid procession, or pompa, in which the magistrates, senate, priests, augurs, vestal virgins, and athletes, took part, carrying with them the images of the great gods, the Sibylline books, and sometimes the spoils of war. On reaching the circus the procession went round once in a circle, the sacrifices were performed, the spectators took their places, and the games commenced. These were:
1. Races with horses and chariots, in which men of the highest rank engaged.
2. The gymnastic contests.
3. The Trojan games, prize contests on horseback, revived by Julius Caesar.
4. The combats with wild beasts, in which beasts fought with beasts or with men (criminals or volunteers).
5. Representations of naval engagements (naumachioe), for which purpose the circus could be laid under water.
The expense of these games was often immense. Pompey, in his second consulship, brought forward 500 lions at one combat of wild beasts, which, with eighteen elephants, were slain in five days.
The modern circus is a place where horses and wild animals are trained to perform antics, and where exhibitions of acrobats and various pageantries, including a large amount of buffoonery, are presented. Research Circus
Ciric-Sceat or Church Scot was an ecclesiastical tax paid chiefly in corn during the reign of Canute and there abouts. The tax was paid on St Martin's day. Research Ciric-Sceat
The ancient Greeks and Romans called the coffers they used for the remains of the dead a cist. The Greek and Roman cists were cylindrical and made of wickerwork. The cicts used in the rites of ceres were made of bronze. Research Cist
The Citroen Light 15, popularly known as the Traction-avant, was a French car produced in various forms between 1934 and 1955. The Citroen Light 15 was produced as a four-door saloon, a hatchback and as a two-door coupe, and was powered by a four or six cylinder inline engine and a three-speed manual gear box providing a top speed of between 70 and 85 mph. Research Citroen Light 15
A city (named from the Latin, civitas), in a general sense is a town holding, from extent of population, favourable situation, or other causes, a leading place in the community in which it is situated. Popularly, the name is also used, both in Britain and France, to designate the old and central nucleus as distinguished from the suburban growths of large towns. The ecclesiastical sense of the term city is a town which is, or has been, the see of a bishop. This seems to be the historical use of the term in England, and still possesses some authority there, but to a considerable extent it has been superseded by the wider one. In America the application of the term is dependent upon the nature and extent of the municipal privileges possessed by corporations, and a town is raised to the dignity of a city by special charter. Generally the term implies the existence of a mayor at the head of the municipality. Research City
City Lights was a British situation comedytelevision show starring Gerard Kelly, Andy Gray and Jan Wilson in a story about a Scottish bank clerk determined to make it as a novelist. City Lights was written by Bob Black and screened by BBC from 1987 to 1991. Research City Lights
The City and Guilds of London Institute is an association established by the Corporation and Livery Companies of the City of London for the promotion of technical education in all its branches. It was founded in 1878, and incorporated by royal charter. Research City and Guilds
The civic crown was the highest military reward among the Romans, and was assigned to people who had saved the life of a citizen. The civic crown bore the inscription '0b civem servatum' that is, 'for saving a citizen,' and was made of oakleaves. The person who received the crown wore it in the theatre, and sat next the senators, and when he came in all the assembly rose up as a mark of respect. Research Civic Crown
Civil Death was a term applied to the entire loss or forfeiture of civil rights; the separation of a man from civil society, or from the enjoyment of civil rights, as by banishment, abjuration of the realm, entering into a monastery, etc. Research Civil Death
Civil Law (jus civile) among the Romans was a term nearly corresponding to what in modern times is implied by the phrase positive law, that is, the rules of right established by any government. They contradistinguished it from natural law (jus naturale), by which they meant a certain natural order followed by all living beings; also from the general laws of mankind established by the agreement of all nations and governments (jus gentium). With the growth and multiplication of the edicts issued by the praetors (in whose hands was the supreme administration of justice) for the modification and extension of the positive enactments a further distinction became necessary, the whole body of this praetorian law being known by the name of jus honorarium as opposed to the strict formal law (jus civile). The latter, however, included both the private law (jus privatum), which relates to the various legal relations of the different members of the state - the citizens - and the public law (jus publicum), that is, the rules respecting the limits, rights, obligations, etc, of the public authorities.
The final digest of Roman law was made in the 6th century AD under the Emperor Justinian, but at first was only admitted as formally binding in a small part of Italy. After the llth century, in Upper Italy, particularly in the school of Bologna, the body of the Roman law, put together by Justinian, was formed by degrees into a system applicable to the wants of all nations; and on this model the ecclesiastical and Papal decrees were arranged, and to a considerable degree the native laws of the new Teutonic states. From all these the Roman law was distinguished under the name of civil law. In this sense, therefore, civil law means ancient Roman law; and it is contradistinguished from canon law and feudal law, though the feudalcodes of the Lombards have been received into the corpus juris civilis, or body of civil law. As the Roman code exerted the greatest influence on the private law of modern Europe, the expression civil law is also used to embrace all the rules relating to the private rights of citizens. Under the term civil law, therefore, in both Europe and America, is to be understood not only the Roman law, but also the modern private law of the various countries; for example, in Germany, Das gemeine Deutsche Privatrecht, in France the Code civil des Francais or Code Napoleon. In this sense it is chiefly opposed to criminal law, particularly in reference to the administration of justice, which is to be divided into civil justice and criminal justice. Research Civil Law
In Britain, the Civil List was formerly the whole expenses of the government, with the exception of those of the army, navy, and other military departments. It is now limited to the expenses proper to the maintenance of the household of the sovereign. It was once a principle in England, as in other Teutonic nations, that the monarch was to pay all the expenses of government; even including those of the army, from the possessions of the crown, and until the Restoration the whole expenses of the government continued to be defrayed out of the royal revenue. In the reign of William, the Commons adopted the principle of separating the regular and domestic expenses of the king-from the public expenditure, and establishing a systematic and periodical control over the latter. Research Civil List
The American Civil Rights Act was an act passed by Congress over President Johnson's veto on April the 9th 1866, aiming to place the Negro on the same civil footing as the whites. Its principal section provided that all persons born in the United States, and not subjected to any foreign power, excluding Indians not taxed, were to be recognized as citizens of the United States. The violation of this act was made a misdemeanour to be considered by the Federal courts alone. The President was given power to enforce the act by special or military force. The controversy over the constitutionality of the act led to the framing of the Fourteenth Amendment, passed June the 13th, 1866. After this a more stringent act to secure the civil rights of the Negro was passed in 1875. But the Supreme Court in 1883 declared its most important sections unconstitutional. Research Civil Rights Act
A clack dish is a dish or basin with a movable lid. During the Elizabethan times beggars proclaimed their want by clacking the lid of a wooden dish. Research Clack Dish
A clap-net is a ground-net used by bird-catchers, consisting of two equal parts about ten metres long by two metres wide, and each having a slight frame. They are placed about one metre apart, and are pulled over by a string so as to inclose any birds on the intervening space. Research Clap-Net
A claque was a body of men and women (known as claqueurs) hired to applaud, laugh and weep as appropriate in theatres with the intention of making the show a success. It originated in France around 1760 and ceased around 1878. Research Claque
The Clarendon Press was the name formerly given to the press at the University of Oxford. It was founded in 1672 and the printing house erected in 1711 to 1713 with profits from the sale of Lord Clarendon's 'History of the Rebellion', the copyright of which was given to the university by his son. Since 1830 the press has been known as the Oxford University Press. Research Clarendon Press
Classic is a term derived from the Latin classici, the name given to the citizens belonging to the first or highest of the six classes into which the Romans were divided. Hence the Greek and Roman authors have been in modern times called classics, that is, the excellent, the models. The Germans, however, soon gave the word Hassisch (classical) a wider sense, making it embrace: 1, the standard works of any nation; and 2, ancient literature and art, in contradistinction to the modern; and their example was followed by both the British and the French. A third use of the term, in contradistinction to Romantic, is scarcely comprised under those cited, implying adherence to the established literary or artistic convention of some previous period, as opposed to the insurgence of new elements shaping a new convention. In this sense classic usually implies the predominance of form over emotion and thought, while its antonym Romantic implies the predominance of emotion and the departure from the old formal standards. Research Classic
In linguistics, a clause is a sentence or sentence-like construction included within another sentence. For example, within the sentence 'I did it because I wanted to.' The sub-part 'because I wanted to' is a clause. Research Clause
The Clayton-Bulwer Treaty was a treaty drawn up between the USA and Great Britain in 1850, and named after the negotiators, John M Clayton and Sir H Lytton Bulwer, under the treaty neither power was to obtain exclusive control over any canal across the Central American Isthmus, but all such communications by canal or railway were to be neutral. The treaty was superseded by the 1901 Hay-Pauncefote Treaty. Research Clayton-Bulwer Treaty
Click is a peculiar variety of speech which occurs in the Bushman and Hottentot languages. The sounds are produced by pressing the tongue against some portion of the teeth-ridge or palate, and then quickly withdrawing it so as to produce an implosive click. Research Click
It was once believed that 7 and 9, with their multiples, were critical points in life; and 63, produced by multiplying 7 and 9 together, was termed the grand climacteric, which few people succeeded in outliving.
Climacteric years are the seventh and ninth, with their multiples by the odd numbers 3, 5, 7 and 9 - that is 7, 9, 21, 27, 35, 45, 49, 63 and 81 - over which astrologers declare that the planet Saturn presides. Research Climacteric Years
The Clinton Bridge Case was an important litigation in the United States Supreme Court, 1870, which established the doctrine by which railroad bridges may be said to have gained clear recognition of their rights of way in preference to the navigable waters crossed by them, through the power of Congress to regulate interstate commerce. Research Clinton Bridge Case
A clock is an instrument for measuring time and indicating hours, minutes, and usually seconds, by means of hands moving on a dial-plate, and traditionally differing from a watch mainly in having the movement of its machinery regulated by a pendulum, and in not being portable. A clock also chimes, though the term clock is frequently, and incorrectly, applied to the non-chiming instruments for measuring time, which are technically known as a timepiece.
The use of a horologium, or hour-teller, was common even amongst the ancients, but their time-pieces were nothing else than sun-dials, hour-glasses, and clepsydrae. In the earlier half of our era we have accounts of several attempts at clock construction : that of Boethius in the 6th century, the clock sent by Harun al Rashid to Charlemagne in 809, that made by Pacificus, archdeacon of Verona, in the 9th century, and that of PopeSylvester II in the 10th century. It is doubtful, however, if any of these was a wheel-and-weight clock, and it is probably to the monks that we owe the invention of clocks set in motion by wheels and weights. In the 12th century clocks were made use of in the monasteries, which announced the end of every hour by the sound of a bell put in motion by means of wheels. From this time forward the expression, 'the clock has struck,' is often met with. The hand for marking the time is also made mention of.
In the 14th century there are stronger traces of the later system of clock-work. Dante particularly mentions clocks. Richard, abbot of St Albans in England, made a clock in 1326, such as had never been heard of until then. It not only indicated the course of the sun and moon, but also the ebb and flood tide. Large clocks on steeples likewise were first made use of in the 14th century. Watches are a much later invention, although they have likewise been said to have been invented as early as the 14th century. A celebrated clock, the construction of which is well known, was set up in Paris for Charles V in 1379, the maker being Henry de Vick, a German. It probably formed a model on which clocks were constructed for nearly 300 years, and until Huyghens applied the pendulum to clock-work as the regulating power, about 1657. The great advantage of the pendulum prior to the invention of electronic oscillators is that the beats or oscillations of a pendulum all occupy substantially the same time (the time depending on its length), hence its utility in imparting regularity to a time-measurer. The mechanism by which comparative regularity was previously attained, though ingenious and simple, was far less perfect; and the first pendulum escapement that is, the contrivance by which the pendulum was connected with the clock-work, was also less perfect than others subsequently introduced, especially Graham's dead-heat escapement, invented in 1700.
In a watch, prior to the invention of electronics, the balance-wheel and spring served the same purpose as the pendulum, and the honour of being the inventor of the balance-spring was contested between Huyghens and the English pliilosopher Dr. Hooke. Various improvements followed, such as the chronometerescapement, and the addition of a compensation adjustment, by which two metals having unequal rates of expansion and contraction under variations of temperature are combined in the pendulum or the balance-wheel, so that, each metal counteracting the other, the vibrations are isochronous under any change of temperature. This arrangement was perfected by Harrison in 1726, and was especially useful in navigation. Research Clock
The clog almanac was a square piece of wood, brass or bone about eight inches long which could be hung up in a room or fixed into a walking stick. It was a perpetual almanac showing the Sundays and other fixed festivals. Clog almanacs were introduced into England by the Danes. Research Clog Almanac
The term cloister is applied to a monastic establishment; a place for retirement from the world for religious duties.
Cloister is a generic term, and denotes a place of seclusion from the world for persons who devote their lives to religious purposes. It differs from a convent in that the distinctive idea of a cloister is that of seclusion from the world, while that of a convent is a community of living. Both terms denote houses for recluses of either sex.
A cloister or convent for monks is called a monastery; for nuns, a nunnery. An abbey is a convent or monastic institution governed by an abbot or an abbess; a priory is one governed by a prior or a prioress, and is usually affiliated to an abbey. Research Cloister
A clown is the buffoon or practical jester in pantomime and circus performances. On the old English stage the clown was the privileged laughter-provoker, who, without taking any part in the dramatic development of the piece represented, carried on his improvised jokes and tricks with the actors, often indeed addressing himself directly to tho audience instead of confining himself to what was going on on the stage. In Shakespeare's dramas, a distinct part is assigned to the clown, who no longer appears as an extempore jester, although the part he plays is to a certain extent in keeping with his traditional functions. He is now confined to the pantomime and the circus, in the former of which he plays a part allied to that of the French Pierrot. Research Clown
A club, a select number of persons in the habit of meeting for the promotion of some common object, as social intercourse, literature, politics, etc. It is a peculiarly English institution, which can scarcely be said to have taken root in any other country except America. The coffee-houses of the 17th and 18th centuries are the best representatives of what is meant by a modern club, while the clubs of that time were commonly nothing but a kind of restaurants or taverns whero people resorted to take their meals. But while anybody was free to enter a coffeehouse, it wao absolutely necessary that a person should have been formally received as a member of a club, according to its regulations, before he was at liberty to enter it.
Among the earliest of the London clubs was the Kit-cat Club, formed in the reign of Queen Anne, among whoso forty members were dukes, earls, and the leading authors of tho day. Another club formed about the same time was the Beefsteak Club. Originally these two cluba had no pronounced political views, but in the end they began to occupy themselves with politics, the Kit-cat Club being Whig, and the Beefsteak Club Tory. Perhaps the most celebrated club of the 18th century was that which was first called The Club par excellence, and numbered among its members Dr. Johnson, Sir Joshua Reynolds, Edmund Burke, Oliver Goldsmith, Edward Gibbon, and others.
Clubs are often provided with reading-room and library, and formerly a smoking-room, billiard-room, coffee-room, dining-room, drawing-room, etc, and also may have a certain number of bed-rooms. Besides being convenient for social intercourse, members may obtain their meals in them, served in the best style and at moderate cost. New members are admitted by ballot, and pay a certain entrance fee as well as an annual subscription. Research Club
Clubmen were associations founded in the southern and western counties of England, to restrain the excesses of the armies during the civil wars of 1642 - 1649. They professed neutrality, but inclined towards the king, and were considered enemies by his opponents. Research Clubmen
The Probert Encyclopaedia was designed, edited and programed by
Matt and Leela Probert
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