A Fabian policy is a policy of delays and cautions. It is so called after the style of policy used by Fabiu Maximus, who, by carefully avoiding decisive contests, foiled Hannibal, harassing his army by marches, counter- marches, and Ambuscades. Research Fabian Policy
The Fabian Society is a socialist association founded in London in 1883 which aims at the reorganisation of society by the emancipation of land and capital from individual and class ownership, and the vesting of them in the community for the general benefit. This result to be attained, not by any violent upheaval, but by the slow process of educating the minds of the masses (hence the name, from the famous ancient Roman, Q. Fabius Cunctator, 'slow but sure'). The society has branches in Great Britain, the colonies, and America, and has issued a number of publications. Research Fabian Society
In literature, fable is a term applied originally to every imaginative tale, but confined in modern use to short stories, either in prose or verse, in which animals and sometimes inanimate things are feigned to act and speak with human interests and passions for the purpose of inculcating a moral lesson in a pleasant and pointed manner. The fable consists properly of two parts - the symbolical representation and the application, or the instruction intended to be deduced from it, which latter is called the moral of the tale, and must be apparent in the fable itself. The oldest fables are supposed to be the oriental; among these the Indian fables of Pilpay or Bidpai, and the fables of the Arabian Lokman, are celebrated. Amongst the Greeks, AEsop is the master of a simple but very effective style of fable. The fables of Phaedrus are a second-rate Latin version of those of AEsop. In modern times Gellert and Lessing among the Germans, Gay among the English, the Spanish Yriarte, and the Russian Ivan Kriloff, are celebrated. The first place, however, amongst modern fabulists belongs to the French writerLa Fontaine. Research Fable
Fabliau is a form of early French literature consisting of short versified tales of the Trouveres, or early poets of the Langue d'Oil, comic in spirit and intended primarily for recitation. They were mainly written between the 12th and 14th centuries in northern France, and caricature every subject, but particularly women, having as their principal subjects the current gossip and news of the day, which were treated in a witty and sarcastic way. The fabliaux lashed not only the clergy and nobility in their degeneracy, but even mocked the religious chivalrous spirit, and the religious and knightly doctrines and ceremonies. Research Fabliau
A fac (from a shortening of facsimile) is a large ornamental letter used, especially by the early printers, at the commencement of the chapters and other divisions of a book. Research Fac
A face mold is a template or pattern used by carpenters, and the like, to outline the forms which are to be cut out from boards, sheet metal, etc. Research Face Mold
Facetiae are humorous sayings, witticisms, jests. There have been many collections of such. Amongst the most notable are the Jests of Hierocles, an old Greek collection, the Liber Facetiarum of Poggio Bracciolini, the Apophthegms of Bacon, Joe Miller's Jest-Book, etc. Research Facetiae
The facial angle is an angle of importance in the method of skull measurement introduced by Camper, the Dutch anatomist, who sought to establish a connection between the magnitude of this angle and the intelligence of different animals and people, maintaining that it is always greater as the intellectual powers are greater. Suppose a straight line drawn at the base of the skull, from the great occipital cavity across the external orifice of the ear to the bottom of the nose, and another straight line from the bottom of the nose, or from the roots of the upper incisors, to the most prominent part of the forehead, then both lines will form an angle which will be more or less acute. In apes this angle is only from 45 to 60 degrees; in the skull of a negro, about 70 degrees; in a European, from 75 degrees to 85 degrees - reinforcing the ignorant racist hypothesis formerly prevalent among Europeans that Europeans are more advanced than negros. In another mode of drawing the lines the angle included between them varies in man from 90 degrees to 120 degrees, and is more capable of comparison among vertebrate animals than the angle of Camper. This angle though of some importance in the comparison of races, has no relationship to the intellectual ability of the individual. Research Facial Angle
Factorial is a name in mathematics given to the factors of a continued product when the former are derivable from one and the same function F(x) by successively imparting a constant increment or decrement h to the independent variable. Thus the product F(x).F(x + h).F(x + 2h) . . . F[x + (n-1) h] is called a factorial term, and its several factors take the name of factorials. Research Factorial
Factory (from factor), is a name which appears originally to have been given to establishments of merchants and factors (agents) resident in foreign countries; it now signifies a place in which the various processes of a particular manufacture are carried on simultaneously. The rapid growth of factories in this sense is a comparatively recent development of industry, resulting from the free use of machinery and the consequent subdivision of labour sine the late 18th century. Amongst the advantages of the factory system are generally counted: increased productivity arising from the minute division of labour; the mechanical accuracy, and the cheapness of the product turned out by machinery (mass production); the facilities for union and co-operation for common improvement afforded by bringing large masses of workmen together. But this last consideration is probably more than counterbalanced by the smaller amount of independent intelligence called forth in the individual worker, through the monotony of the minutely subdivided operations. Since the 19th century the disadvantages of the factory system have been recognised, and were originally cited as the unhealthiness of the crowded rooms, and the increasing demand on the labour of women and children, which was perceived as interfering with the economy of domestic life. This last issue was sought to be redressed by factory acts, first passed in the late 18th century. Research Factory
Factory Acts are acts passed for the regulation of factories and similar establishments. In the 18th and 19th century it was considered that women and children were not qualified fully to protect themselves against the strain of competition, and asa result the British legislature passed a series of acts to regulate the conditions of their employment in factories.
The immediate occasion of the first act passed to regulate factory employment in England was the outbreak of an epidemic disease which committed great havoc among the younger persons employed in factories in the district round Manchester at the beginning of the 19th century.
An act was passed in 1802, The Health and Morals of Apprentices Act, in which provision was made for the regular cleansing and ventilation of mills and factories, and also for limiting the hours of work to twelve daily and forbade night work for children, and made provisions for their proper accommodation.
In 1819 an act followed after Robert Owen, an important factory-owner in Scotland, demonstrated that it was possible to improve factory conditions and make profits at the same time, and later campaigned for State reform. This Act prescribed an hour and a half for meals in the course of a working day, and prohibited children under nine years of age being employed in factorywork at all.
Early Factory Acts were not enforced, and as such were impotent. In 1833 the first truly effective Factory Act was passed. This act applied to all textile factories, and stated that no child under the age of nine was to work in a mill; children under the age of 13 were restricted to working no more than nine hours in a day and children between the ages of 13 and 18 were restricted to working no more than 12 hours in a day. The vital feature of this Act was that it was successfully enforced by full-time inspectors, whose job was to see that it was obeyed in the factories.
Various acts were passed up to 1878, when a general factory and Workshop Act was passed, consolidating the previous series of statutes. Another general act was passed in 1901 and since then numerous regulations and acts have been introduced.
The original acts contained general provisions regarding drainage, sanitary conveniences, overcrowding, ventilation, fencing of dangerous machinery, etc. Addressing what we would now term health and safety.
Factories are distinguished from workshops as making use of, originally, steam or other mechanical power. In the 19th century British textile factories the hours of labour for women and young persons (the latter between 14 and 18 years of age) were restricted to 10, but only 6.5 on Saturday and 56 in the week. In 19th century British non-textile factories and workshops the hours permitted were 10.5 per day and 60 per week at most. Children (of 11 to 14 years) were still employed, but not allowed to be employed more than 6.5 hours on any one day. Provision was made for a certain number of annual holidays. Special provisions for particular kinds of factories were made by separate acts, and under these the employment of females and young persons was regulated in bleaching and dyeing works, lace-factories, manufactories of earthenware, Lucifer matches, percussion caps, cartridges, blast-furnaces, copper-mills, forges, foundries, manufactories of machinery, metal, India-rubber, gutta-percha, paper, glass, tobacco, letterpress printing, bookbinding, etc. The factory act of 1895 included laundries. Certain exceptions in regard to working overtime were provided for; thus women could sometimes work 14 hours a day. Before the start of the 20th century there was no direct interference in any of the factory acts with the labour of adult male persons but it was recognised that indirectly the position of the male-labourer was also affected by legislation of this sort, causing some consternation among the factory owners.
The factory acts were among the first employment laws formalised to protect workers, and while they originally sought to protect primarily women and children, during the 20th century they evolved into more general employment laws offering regulation and some protection to all employees, with the employment of children being stopped all together and later men being treated equally with women, an employee being considered a person irrespective of sex. Research Factory Acts
Fagging is a custom which formerly prevailed generally at most of the English schools, and was still practised at Eton, Winchester, Harrow, Rugby, and one or two other places at the start of the 20th century. It consists in making the junior boys act as servants or 'fags' in the performance of multifarious menial offices for the elder boys, such as carrying messages, preparing breakfast, etc, for their master, in return for which the elder boy accepts a certain responsibility for keeping order, and becomes the recognized adviser and protector of his 'fags.' Research Fagging
Faggot-vote was formerly a name in Britain for a vote procured by the purchase of property so as to constitute a nominal qualification without a substantial basis. Faggot-votes were chiefly used in county elections for members of parliament. The way in which they were usually manufactured was by the purchase of a property which was divided into as many lots as would constitute separate votes, and given to different persons, who were not resident members of the constituency. Research Faggot-vote
Faience is imitation porcelain, a kind of fine pottery, superior to the common pottery in its glazing, beauty of form, and richness of painting, and of which several kinds are distinguished by critics. It derived its name from the town of Faenza, in Italy, where a fine sort of pottery called majolica was manufactured as early as the 14th century. The majolica reached its greatest perfection between 1530 and 1560. In the Louvre, at Berlin, and at Dresden are rich collections of it. The modern faience appears to have been invented about the middle of the 16th century, at Faenza, as an imitation of majolica, and obtained its name in France, where a man from Faenza, having discovered a similar kind of clay at Nevers, had introduced the manufacture of it. True faience is made of a yellowish or ruddy earth, covered with an enamel which is usually white, but may be coloured. This enamel is a glass rendered opaque by oxide of tin or other suitable material, and is intended not only to glaze the body, but to conceal it entirely. Research Faience
Faineants or 'do nothings' was a sarcastic epithet applied to the later Merovingian kings of France, who were puppets in the hands of the mayors of the palace. Louis V, the last of the Carlovingian dynasty, received the same designation. Research Faineants
Fairs were periodical meetings of persons having goods or wares for sale in an open market held at a particular place, and generally for the transaction of a particular class of business. The origin of fairs is obviously to be traced to the convenience of bringing together at stated times the buyers and sellers of tlie stock-produce of a district. In Europe the numerous festivals of the church afforded the most favourable opportunity for the establishment of these markets. This association is indicated in the German name of a fair, which is identical with that used for the ceremony of the mass.
In the middle ages fairs were of great importance, and were specially privileged and chartered by princes and magistrates, public proclamation being made of their commencement and duration. By the late 19th century and start of the 20th century, facilities of communication much diminished the necessity for periodical markets, and by about 1900 it was chiefly amongst agriculturists that they were of much importance, large agricultural meetings being held in various districts for the sale of cattle and horses, and for the exhibition of agricultural implements. By the end of the 20th century, these fairs also had lost importance and died out. There were also, especially in Scotland, a considerable number of hiring fairs for farm-servants.
In many places the old fair-days are still kept, but are now merely an assemblage of rides and amusements. Amongst the fairs which were once celebrated saturnalia, may be mentioned Donnybrook Fair in the county of Dublin; Bartholomew and GreenwichFairs, London; and Glasgow Fair. Research Fair
The Fairlop Oak was a 500 year old oak tree with a trunk fourteen metres in circumference in Hainault forest, Essex. Beneath its branches an annual fair was long held on the first Friday in July. It was blown down in 1820. Research Fairlop Oak
In old English law, faldage was the privilege of setting up, and moving about, folds for sheep, in any fields within manors, so as to manure them. The privilege was often reserved to himself by the lord of the manor. Research Faldage
A faldstool is a reading-desk used in Anglican and Roman Catholic churches during certain portions of the service. A kneeling shelf is attached to the lower part.
Originally a faldstool was a folding stool, or portable seat, made to fold up in the manner of a camo stool. It was formerly placed in the choir for a bishop, when he officiated in any but his own cathedralchurch. The term is also used to describe a small stool employed in the coronation service for the use of the sovereign when being crowned. Research Faldstool
In Scottish whaling, fall was the cry given when a whale was spotted or harpooned. The term was also applied to the pursuit of a whale or school of whales. Research Fall
In logic, a fallacy is when an argument is used as decisive of a particular issue, which in reality it does not decide. Properly a fallacy is a fault in the form of reasoning, but the term is applied also to faults in the substance of the argument such as the petitio principii, or proving one proposition by assuming another which is identical with it; ignoratio elenchi, or mistaking the point at issue; post hocergo propter hoc, or arguing as if sequence were the same thing as cause and effect. Research Fallacy
Fallow is land left unsown for a period of time, usually a year in order that it may recover itself from an exhausted state. Strictly spealdng, fallow ground is left altogether without crops; but in agricultural usage strict fallow is not always adopted, and the term fallow is applied to various modes of treatment, of which at least three distinct varieties are recognized: baref allow, bastard fallow, and green-crop fallow. Bare fallow is that in which the land remains completely bare for a whole year; in bastard fallow it is ploughed up and worked after the removal of a spring or summer crop, preparatory to the sowing of a root or forage crop, to occupy the ground during autumn or winter; in green-crop fallow the land is sown with a root-crop, such as turnips or potatoes, placed in rows far enough apart to admit of the intermediate spaces being stirred, pulverized, and cleaned, during its growth, by machine or hand implements.
Fallowing is an ancient process, it has been known for centuries that the same crop frown on the same land deteriorates after a few years, partly because the soil is exhausted and partly because of disease. By leaving the land for a year, it can recover and subsequent crops improve. Research Fallow
The Falmouth Gazette and Weekly Advertiser was an American newspaper, the first printed in Maine. It was established at Portland, Maine, by Titcomb and White in 1785. In 1786 it was changed to the Cumberland Gazette and in 1792 to the Eastern Herald. In 1796 it was consolidated with the Gazette of Maine and was published as the Eastern Herald and Gazette of Maine. Again in 1804 it was united with the Portland Gazette. In 1831 it was established as a daily under the title of the Advertiser but was suspended for two years beginning with 1866. In 1868 its publication was once more resumed, and continued in connection with the weekly edition, under the name of the Advertiser. Research Falmouth Gazette and Weekly Advertiser
Family Compact was the name given to a compact organized by the Duke de Choiseul, first minister of Louis XV, between the various members of the Bourbon family, then sovereigns of France, Spain, the Two Sicilies, Parma, and Piacenza, mutually to guarantee each other's possessions. It was signed on the 15th of August, 1761, and entailed on Spain a war with England. Research Family Compact
Human babies generally resemble their father. The reason for this is that in nature while a mother knows that she has spawned a child, the father does not know that it was his impregnation that fertilised the woman. However, through family resemblance nature reassures the father that the offspring is his, and thus improves the chances of the father providing the support to the mother and child that they need during the early years. Research Family Resemblance
Fanagalo is a pidginised form of Zulu taking also many English and Afrikaans words and spoken in South Africa, particularly in the mines, whence it gets its popular name of 'mine kaffir'. Research Fanagalo
A fancy dress party, formerly known as a costume ball, or fancy dress ball, is an entertainments at which the guests adopt a style of dress different from the one usually worn. It may be one which was worn at another period, or one worn in another country, or a modern dress worn by some particular class of society, or more popularly in modern times a form of costume associated with a character from fiction. A favourite plan is to make up as some well-known character in history or literature. Research Fancy Dress Party
Faneuil Hall was the gift to Boston of Peter Faneuil, a merchant. The hall was begun in 1740. It was designed to be both a market-house and a place of public meeting. In 1761 it was destroyed by fire. It was restored in 1763, and was used as a theatre during the British occupation of Boston, in 1775. In 1805 it was enlarged by the addition of a third story and an increase in width. During the American War of Independence it was the usual meeting place of patriots, and was the scene of many stirring debates and important resolutions. It has been called the Cradle of American Liberty. Research Faneuil Hall
A fantasy is something imaginary, made up. In films the term fantasy is applied to stories in which completely made-up events occur, such as stories about imaginary or mythical creatures such as dragons, elves and fairies. The term fantasy is also applied to role-playing games in which a scenario is imagined and the players pretend to be someone or something else, for example at a murder weekend in which the players pretend to be investigators or a murderer and act their role for the duration of the fantasy. Children start engaging in fantasy at a young age, playing games of cowboys and Indians, cops and robbers, spacemen, or even cooking with dirt, tin cans and spoons. Research Fantasy
The Farmers' Alliance was an American an anti-secret, national organization of agriculturists for mutual improvement and furtherance of political ends. It was founded in New York in 1873 and spread rapidly westward. Alliances were at first State organizations. The national organization was completed in 1889 with the Agricultural Wheel under the name of National Farmers Alliance and Industrial Union. Annual conventions were held at different places, the most noted at Ocala in 1890. The Alliance was opposed to national banks, the alien ownership of land, special privileges and Federal election laws. Research Farmers Alliance
Farriery is the art of horse-shoeing. It consists in the attachment of a rim of iron, by means of nails, to the lower border of the horse's hoof, in order to prevent its excessive wear. Research Farriery
Fasces were bundles of wooden rods made of elm or birch strapped together with an axe whose head protruded at right angles from the sticks. The fasces symbolised the authority of the senior magistrates of ancient Rome and were carried by the lictors who preceded them. Research Fasces
Fascism is a political movement which originated in Italy, deriving its name from fasces, and which holds that the individual exists for the State, to whose good all his work and interests should be directed. Fascism originated in Milan in 1919, as a movement started by Benito Mussolini. Research Fascism
Fast and loose, also called prick the garter, was a street fraud, or cheating game, found in England also at fairs, between the 16th and the 19th centuries, involving a stick and a belt, string or garter doubled and rolled up with the double in the middle of the coils, it is then laid on a board, and the dupe is asked to catch the double with the stick or a skewer, when the gambler takes the two ends and looses it or draws it away, so as always to keep the skewer outside the doubled end. Research Fast And Loose
A fata morgana is a kind of mirage by which distant objects appear inverted, distorted, displaced, or multiplied. It is noticed particularly at the Straits of Messina, between Calabria and Sicily. The images of men, houses, towers, palaces, columns, trees, etc, are occasionally seen from the coast, sometimes in the water, and sometimes in the air, or at the surface of the water. The same object has frequently two images, one in the natural and the other in an inverted position. The images of a single object are said to be sometimes considerably multiplied. Research Fata Morgana
The fathom is an ancient unit of measurement described as the length between the tips of the middle fingers of a man's two outstretched arms, reckoned at six feet. By the 20th century the fathom was only really used for sounding measurements. During the 18th century three different lengths all known as fathoms were employed in the British navy. The fathom of the man-of-war was reckoned at six feet, the middling fathom used upon merchant ships at five and a half feet and the small fathom used on fishing boats was five feet. Research Fathom
In geography, a fault is a break in the earth's crust along which movement has taken place - usually, but not always, vertically - so that the layers (strata) of the two rock faces no longer match. It is often along a fault that earthquakes occur. Research Fault
The Feast of Circumcision was a Roman Catholic festival celebrated on January the 1st in honour of the circumcision of Christ, and in opposition to the pagan feast of Janus held on the same day. Whereas the pagan festival was celebrated with feasting in honour of Janus, the Christian festival was celebrated with fasting. Research Feast of Circumcision
The Feast of Fools was the name given to festivals regularly celebrated, from the 5th to the 16th century, in several countries of Europe, by the clergy and laity, with the most absurd ceremonies. The feast of fools was an imitation of the Roman Saturnalia, and, like this, was celebrated in December. The chief celebration fell upon the day of the Innocents, or upon New-year's Day;
but the feast continued from Christmas to the last Sunday of Epiphany. The young people, who played the chief parts, chose from among their own number a mock pope, archbishop, bishop, or abbot, and consecrated him, with many ridiculous ceremonies, in the chief church of the place. They often travestied the performance of the highest offices of the church, while others, dressed in different kinds of masks and disguises, engaged in indecent songs and dances, and practised all possible follies in the church. Except from their association with the Saturnalia nothing is known of the origin of these extravagancies, which appear to have been very ancient. They were most common in France, but the feast was also observed in Spain, Germany, England, and Scotland. In France it survived until the year 1644. Research Feast of Fools
The feast of tabernacles was one of the three principal festivals of the ancient Jews, lasting for seven days in October and celebrating the completion of the harvest. Originally during the feast worshippers dwelt in booths formed of the boughs of trees in allusion to those used by agricultural labourers. The feast of tabernacles is traditionally an occasion of popular merry-making. Research Feast of Tabernacles
In Roman Catholic theology, febronianism, is a system of doctrines antagonistic to the admitted claims of the pope, and asserting the independence of national churches, and the rights of bishops to unrestricted action in matters of discipline and church government within their own dioceses. The term is derived from Justinus Febronius, a nom de plume assumed by John Nicholas von Hontheim, archbishop of Treves, in a work on the claims of the pope. Research Febronianism
February (named from the Roman Februa a festival of expiation or purification) is the second month of the year, having twenty-eight days, except in leap-year, when it has twenty-nine. This latter number of days it had originally among the Romans, until the senate decreed that the seventhmonth should bear the name of Augustus, when a day was taken from February and added to August to make it equal to July in number of days. Research February
In America, the Federal Party was the first political party which had control of the Federal Government. When the Constitution of 1787 was before the people for ratification, those who favoured its adoption took the name of Federalists, giving to its opponents that of Anti-Federalists. In the First Congress, definite party divisions were not found. Before the second had ended, there was a definite division between Federalists and those who called themselves Republicans or Democrats. Hamilton was the leader of the former, Jefferson of the latter. Hamilton's financial measures had been acceptable to those who desired strong government, the commercial classes, those who wished to see the Union drawn still more closely together, still further in the direction of centralization and national consolidation. Their opponents stigmatised them as monarchists. Beside Hamilton and Vice-President John Adams, the party's chief leaders were Fisher Ames, Cabot, Sedgwick, Strong, Pickering and Quincy, of Massachusetts; Ellsworth, Tracy, Griswold and Hillhouse, of Connecticut; Rufus King, Jay and Gouverneur Morris, of New York; Dayton, of New Jersey; Bayard, of Delaware; Marshall, Henry Lee, of Virginia, and C. C. Pinckney, of South Carolina. George Washington was more inclined to this party than to the other.
The Federal Party's strength was always greatest in New England. When war broke out between England and France in 1793, the Federalists, conservative and averse to the French Revolution, favoured Great Britain. In 1796 they elected John Adams President, but failed to elect Thomas Pinckney Vice-President. In 1797 they tried to bring the country into war with France, but Adams, never so extreme as the bulk of the party, prevented this; the result was a schism in the party. In 1798 the party passed the Alien and Sedition laws, which forever destroyed their popularity. In the election of 1800 Adams and Pinckney were decisively defeated by Jefferson and Burr; the causes were, the acts mentioned, internal dissensions, and the indifference of intellectual and acute leaders to popular feelings. During the administrations of Jefferson and Madison the party dwindled. As an opposition party, it took strict-constructionist ground. Some of its leaders engaged in projects for a disruption of the Union. Finally, its unpatriotic course in the War of 1812 and the odium excited by the Hartford Convention destroyed it utterly. Holding the Government during the critical years 1789-1801, it had given it strength, but it distrusted the people top much for permanent success in America. Research Federal Party
A Federal State is a perpetual union of several sovereign States, which has organs of its own and is invested with powers over the member-States and their citizens. This direct power over the citizens of its member- States distinguishes a federate-State from a confederation. Research Federal State
The Federalist was a collection of papers first published in the Independent Journal of New York City, by Hamilton, Madison and Jay, from October, 1787, until March, 1788. They were eighty-five in number and appeared under a joint signature, A Citizen of New York at first, and afterwards Publius. The first of these essays appeared immediately after the adoption of the American Constitution. They were in explanation and defence of the new system of government. Gouverneur Morris was also invited to take part, but was prevented by private business. Jay wrote five, Hamilton fifty-one, Madison twenty-six and their joint effort contributed three, by the most probable conclusions. These papers did much toward securing the ratification of the American Constitution, and form one of the most important commentaries on the American Constitution. Research Federalist
A federation is a union of States in which the participants retain autonomy in local matters, while a Central Government determines questions of common interest. Research Federation
Felo-de-se is Latin for a felon with regard to himself, and is an old term describing someone who commits suicide. Until 1823 it was the practice in England to bury suicides at a cross-roads with a stake driven through the body, but a statute of that year directed burial in a churchyard or burial- ground, without religious service, between the hours of 9pm and midnight. In 1882 both these restrictions were removed. The estates of suicides were also formerly forfeited to the crown. Research Felo-de-se
Felt is a fabric which is not woven, but made of fibres, usually wool or wool and cotton, which when subjected to beating and vibration grip one another in the form of layers. The materials to be felted are carded and placed in a machine, where they are kept wet and intimately mixed together by a process of beating. Pressure then unites the whole into a compact mass. The use of felt as a material for hats, tents, cloaks, etc, is very ancient. For hat-making the fur of rabbits, beavers, raccoons, and the wool of sheep was generally used. Felt being a good non-conductor of heat it was much used for roofing, sheathing boilers, hot-water reservoirs, etc. The felt for such purposes was made from the coarsest woollen refuse from paper-mills. Research Felt
Femgerichte (Fehmgerichte or Vehmgerichte) were criminal courts of Germany in the middle ages, which took the place of the regular administration of justice (then fallen into decay), especially in criminal cases. These courts originated and had their chief jurisdiction in Westphalia, and their proceedings were conducted with the most profound secrecy. They seem to have been a survival of old territorial jurisdictions which, on the general distraction and lawlessness prevalent after the fall of Henry the Lion in 1182, acquired an extensive and tremendous authority. In process of time, however, they degenerated, and no longer confined themselves to law and precedent, so that the secrecy in which they enveloped themselves only served as a cloak to their criminal purposes.
The flagrant abuse of their power brought about their fall. In 1461 various princes and cities of Germany, as well as the Swiss confederates, united in a league against them, but their influence was not entirely destroyed until an amended form of trial and penal judicature was introduced. The last Femgericht was held at Zeil in 1568.
The president of the secret tribunal was called the Freigraf, and was generally a prince or count. His associates, who concurred in and executed the sentence, were called Freischoffen. These were scattered through all the provinces of Germany, and recognized one another by certain signs and watchwords. They acknowledged the emperor as their superior, and for this reason generally made him one of their number at his coronation at Aix-la-Chapelle. The assemblies of the tribunal were open or secret. The former were held by day in the open air; the latter by night, in a forest or in concealed and subterranean places. In these different cases the circumstances of judgment and the process of trial were different. The crimes of which the secret tribunal usurped cognizance were heresy, sorcery, rape, theft, robbery, and murder.
The accusation was made by one of the Freischoffen, who, without further proof, declared upon oath that the accused had committed the crime. The accused was now thrice summoned to appear before the secret tribunal, and the citation was secretly affixed to the door of his dwelling or some neighbouring place; the accuser remained unknown. If, after the third summons, the accused did not appear, he was once more cited in a solemn session of the court, and if still contumacious, was given over to the Freischoffen. The first Freischoffe who met him was bound to execute the decree of the court. A dagger was left by the corpse to show that it was not a murder, but a punishment inflicted by one of the Freischoifen. How many judicial murders were perpetrated in this manner from revenge, interested motives, or malice, may well be imagined. Research Femgerichte
A fen is a marsh or stretch of wet boggy land often containing extensive pools. The soil of fen lands is generally black and rich to a depth of almost one metre, and with proper management in the matter of draining they will produce heavy crops of grass and corn. Research Fen
Fences are continuous lines of obstacles artificially interposed between one portion of the surface of the land and another for the purpose of separation or exclusion. Live fences are made of hawthorn, holly, box, beech, etc; dead fences of stone, wood, and in more recent times of iron or wire. In agriculture fences are necessary both for restricting the tenant's own animals to their pasture, and for protecting his land from straying animals. The general erection of fences on farms was one of the improvements of later agriculture. Research Fence
Fence month is the thirty days extending from fifteen days before Midsummer until fifteen days after it. Fence month is the close-season when deerhunting is not allowed in Britain. Research Fence Month
A feretory was a bier or shrine containing the relics of saints borne in processions, which was usually done on their feast-days, as a token of gratitude in times of public rejoicing, or to obtain some favour in seasons of calamity.
A feretory is a type of coffin, but the form is usually that of a ridged chest, with a roof-like top, generally ornamented with pierced work, with the sides and top engraved and enamelled, and sometimes having images in high relief. They were made of precious metals - typically gold, wood, or ivory. Research Feretory
In March 1542, George Ferrar, a member of parliament, while in attendance on the house was taken in execution by a sheriff's officer for debt, and committed to the Compter prison. The house despatched their sergeant to require his release, which was resisted, and an affray taking place, his mace was broken. The house in a body repaired to the lords to complain, when the contempt was adjudged to be very great, and the punishment of the offenders was referred to the lower house. On another messenger being sent to the sheriff's by the commons, they delivered up the senator, and the civil magistrates and the creditor were committed to the Tower, the inferior officers to Newgate, and an act was passed releasing Ferrar from liability for the debt. The king, Henry VIII, approved of these proceedings and the transaction became the basis of the rule of parliament which exempts members from arrest. Research Ferrar's Arrest
The Ferrari F430 is an Italian two-seater sports car first produced in 2004. The Ferrari F430 is powered by a 4.3 litre V 8 mid engine producing 490 bhp (the Scuderia model produces 510 bhp) providing a top speed of 196 mph and an acceleration of 0 to 60 in four seconds and a combined fuel economy of 15.4 mpg. The Ferrari F430 is produced in a Coupe, Scuderia, Spider and standard model. Research Ferrari F430
A Ferris wheel is an amusement park ride consisting of a large upright wheel rotating on a fixed stand and having suspended around its rim chairs, or capsules in which riders sit. These chairs or capsules are freely suspended so that they remain upright as the wheel rotates. The Ferris wheel was named after the 19th century American engineer G W G Ferris. The largest Ferris wheel is the London Eye on London's embankment which was erected for the millennium celebrations. Research Ferris Wheel
The Fescennine Verses were crude Latin verses in the form of a dialogue between two persons, who satirized and ridiculed each other's failings and vices with great freedom of speech. They originated in country districts in ancient Italy, but were ultimately introduced into the towns, and formed a favourite amusement at marriages and on other occasions of festivity. Research Fescennine Verses
The Feudal System is that system by which land (known as a, fief) is held by a vassal on condition of fidelity, that is, in consideration of services to be rendered to his superior or feudal lord. The nature of the feudal system is to be explained by its origin amongst the Germanic tribes.
In the earliest times the relation of superior and vassal did not exist in connection with the ownership of land. Each freeman had his share of the tribe lands, which were held simply on condition of his fulfilling his public duties of attendance at the councils of the mark or township and performing his share of military service in the wars or musters decreed at such councils. The noble had, of course, more land and more influence than the simple freeman, but there need be no tie of vassalage between them. This seems to have been the primitive social organization of the Anglo-Saxons and other German tribes. The lands held by all freemen, whether noble or ordinary freemen, under this system, are said to be allodial, as distinguished from feudal lands, which imply service to a superior lord.
By the close of the 10th century, however, this system had undergone considerable modifications. The masses of Teutonic invaders who overran Gaul and England had necessarily to confer exceptional powers on their leaders; and as they were for long very much in the position of military in an enemy's country, these powers were naturally continued. Thus it was that kings, before unknown to the Anglo-Saxons, make their appearance immediately after their descent upon Britain. It was common for a chief or great man to have a retinue or body-guard composed of valiant youths, who were furnished by the chief with arms and provisions, and who in return devoted themselves to his service. These companions (Anglo-Saxon, Gesithas; German, Gesellen) originally received no pay except their arms, horses, and provisions, and the portion of the spoils which remained after the chieftain had taken his own share. But when conquered lands came to be apportioned and large districts fell into the hands of kings or dukes and their subordinates, they gave certain portions of the territory to their attendants to enjoy for life. These estates were called beneficia or fiefs, because they were only lent to their possessors, to revert after their death to the grantor, who immediately gave them to another of his servants on the same terms.
As the son commonly esteemed it his duty, or was forced by necessity, to devote his arm to the lord in whose service his father had lived, he also received his father's fief; or rather, he was invested with it anew. By the usage of centuries this custom became a right and the fief became hereditary. A fief rendered vacant by the death of the holder was at once taken possession of by his son, on the sole condition of paying homage to the feudal superior. Thus a feudal nobility and a feudal system arose and for a time existed alongside of the old allodial system. But gradually the greater security to be got by putting one's self under the protection of some powerful ruler or leader gave the feudal system the predominance. The free proprietor of landed property, oppressed by powerful neighbours, sought refuge in submitting to some more powerful nobleman, to whom he surrendered his land, receiving it back as a vassal.
Even the inferior nobility found it to be to their advantage to have themselves recognized as feudatories of the nearest duke or earl; and as the royal power steadily advanced, the offices of duke, ealdorman, gerefa, etc., were always bestowed by the king. Thus the crown became the source of all authority and possession in the country. The land which had once been 'folcland,' or the land of the people, became the land of the king, from whom all titles to it were held to be derived. Such at least was the development of feudalism in England, where its centralizing tendencies, especially in the matter of holding land from the crown, were strongly reinforced by the circumstances of the conquest under William The Conqueror. Under him and his immediate successors there was a struggle between royalty and the nobility, which ended in the power of the latter sinking before that of the kings.
On the other hand, in Germany, France, and elsewhere on the Continent, the disintegrating tendencies of feudalism as a system of government had full play. In these countries the weakening of the kingly authority encouraged the great feudal dukes and counts to set up in an almost absolute independence, which in France was afterwards gradually lost as the monarchy grew stronger, but in Germany continued to divide the land down almost to modern times into a number of petty principalities.
Among the chief agencies that overthrew the feudal system were the rise of cities, the change in modes of warfare, and the spread of knowledge and civilization. The spirit of the feudal system, grounded on the prevalence of landed property, was necessarily foreign to cities which owed their origin to industry and personal property, and founded thereon a new sort of power. The growth of this new class, with its wealth and industrial importance, has contributed more than anything else to a social and political development before which the old feudal relations of society have almost totally disappeared. Even yet, however, the laws relating to land still bear the stamp of feudalism in various countries. Research Feudal
The fiacre was a French, small four-wheeled horse-drawn carriage, usually with a folding roof invented by Sauvage in 1640 and named after the Hotel de St Fiacre, Paris, where these hackney-carriages were first hired out. Research Fiacre
Fidei defensor (Latin meaning defender of the faith) is a title of British monarchs first conferred by Leo X on Henry VIII for his book Assertio septem Sacramentorum, published in 1521 which attacks the doctrines of Luther. At the dissolution of the monasteries the Pope stripped Henry VIII of the title, but Parliament confirmed it in 1544 and it has been used by all British monarchs subsequently, being indicated on British coins as FID. DEF. Research Fidei Defensor
Under a treaty between America and Spain of 1819, parallel 42 degrees was fixed as the northern limit of Spain's possessions in America. Between 42 and 54 degrees 40 minutes lay the special 'Oregon country', claimed by both England and the United States. English fur-traders had passed to the south of parallel 49 degrees, below which surveys had been made by the United States, and where settlements were being- slowly made. In 1844 the hot-headed among the Democrats started the cry, Fifty-four forty or fight, referring to 54 degrees 4o minutes, for which limit they wished to resort to war. For a time war seemed inevitable, but in 1846 a treaty was concluded fixing the boundary between the British and United States possessions at 49 degrees north latitude. Research Fifty-four Forty or Fight
Figaro is a character of dramatic fiction. He made his first appearance in Beaumarchais' plays The 'Barber of Seville' written in 1775, 'The Marriage of Figaro' written in 1784, and 'The Other Tartuffe' written in 1792. Since Beaumarchais' time Figaro has become the type of ingenious roguery, intrigue, and cunning, who displays the utmost sang-froid in all his daring deceptions. He appears conspicuously in Mozart's opera 'The Marriage de Figaro' written in 1786 and Rossini's 'The Barber of Seville' written in 1816, both operas being based on the plays of the same names. Research Figaro
Filigree is fine ornamental work of gold or silver wire, closely interlaced. The ancient Greeks were famous for their fine filigree work. Malta produced so much filigree work that it became known as Maltese work, though other countries (notably Norway) produced far superior examples. Research Filigree
Find the lady is an ancient and classic confidence trick or scam. Typically the conman will operate on a street corner with a table on which are three playing cards. These cards are shown to the audience to be three different and ordinary cards, one of which is a queen. The cards are dealt face down in a row and a victim asked to select which is the queen. Then the cards are slid to different positions and the victim again asked to locate the queen, this continues until the performer believes the victim is ready to be tricked. Finally the victim is invited to place a wager on their ability to locate the queen. The cards are slid about as before to change their sequence, but the queen is not where expected. The performer, an expert card sharp, has used sleight of hand to trick the victim. Often an accomplice will pretend to be a member of the audience, and will 'win' the wager, thereby enticing gullible members of the audience to try. In variations, a victim may be allowed to win a small wager, and perhaps another, before being and invited to try a large wager, at which point flushed with their own perceived success at the 'game' they lose. Research Find The Lady
Fine Arts are the arts whose object is the production of pleasure by their immediate impression on the mind, as poetry, music, painting, and sculpture. In modern usage the term is often restricted to the imitative arts which appeal to us through the eye, namely painting, sculpture, engraving, architecture, and is sometimes even restricted to the two first as more essentially imitative live. Research Fine Arts
Fine Gael is an Irish political party. It formed in 1921 from Sinn Fein and was originally known as Cummann na nGaedheal until it changed its name in 1933. It formed the first government of the Irish Free State. Research Fine Gael
Finger-prints have been used in ceremonies since early times, but in police investigations their use dates back to 1897 when the Indian government sanctioned their use. Sir William Herschel of the Indian civil service, first introduced the practice when he was in executive charge of the Hugli district, Bengal. he found that impersonation was prevalent in all the courts, and with a view to checking the frauds that were committed, he insisted upon the executants of documents which were admitted to registration affixing their finger impressions in the Register of Admissions as evidence of personal identity. The use of fingerprints in Britain was sanctioned in 1901. Research Finger Prints
Fion or Fionn is a name given in the Ossianic poetry to a semi-mythical class of warriors of superhuman size, strength, speed, and prowess. Generally they are supposed to have been a sort of Irish militia, and to have had their name from Fion MacCumhal (the Finn MacCoul of Dunbar, and Fingal of Macpherson), their most distinguished leader; but Skene believes them to have been of the race that inhabited Germany before the Germans, and Scotland and Ireland before the Scots. Research Fion
A fiord is a long, narrow inlet of the sea, with steep sides, scooped out in ages past by glaciers. A fiord is usually very deep, becoming shallower towards its mouth. Research Fiord
Around 1708 an Act was passed in England for the better protection of property and life from fire making it compulsory for every parish in England to maintain fire-engines and ladders, to be paid for out of the rates. The 1708 Act did not, however, provide any instructions for the use of the equipment, which subsequently was unmanned in the event of fires and so the fire insurance companies established brigades of fire-fighters. These private brigades, paid for by individual companies, often refused to fight fires at uninsured properties or at properties insured by other fire insurance companies.
In 1833, in response to the neglect of the fire-fighting equipment, the London fire brigades were amalgamated into the London Fire-engine establishment by Charles Bell Ford director of the Sun Fire-office company. This new brigade had 80 men and 19 fire stations. In 1862 a commission recommended the establishment of a fire brigade and this was effected by the Metropolitan Fire-Brigade Act of 1865, resulting in the private London fire-brigade being taken over by the Metropolitan Board of Works. At the same time, while a few major cities in England and Scotland had paid fire-brigades, other towns in Britain had volunteer forces. Within 30 years national fire-brigades had been established with 400 brigades nationwide employing over 30,000 firemen.
At the end of the 19th century the London Fire-Brigade was manned by 800 seamen and equipped with fire-engines, both land based and water-based 'fire-floats' manufactured by the Merryweather company which had been making fire-fighting engines since 1694. In 1889 an Act allowed London's fire-fighters to be recruited from all walks of life, not just sailors. Research Fire Brigade
The Great Fire of London occurred in 1666, starting in a baker's house in Pudding Lane and burning for four days. It was attributed to be a Catholic plot intended to destroy the Protestant city of London (an early act of terrorism). The fire destroyed 88 churches, the city gates, the Royal Exchange, the Custom House, the Guildhall, Sion College, other public buildings, 13,200 houses and destroyed 400 streets. 200,000 people were made homeless and camped in Islington and Highgate fields, but only eight people were killed by the fire. A monument to the fire (the Monument of London) was erected designed by Sir Christopher Wren in 1671 - 1677. Research Fire Of London
Fire-drill is the name given by Tylor to the instrument used by Aboriginal peoples around the world, particularly the Australians and Tasmanians, for producing fire. It consists of two pieces of soft dry wood; one a stick about 20 cm long, the other piece flat. The stick is shaped into an obtuse point at one end, and, pressing it upon the flat piece of wood, it is caused to revolve quickly between the hands. The resulting friction causes fire to be produced within two minutes. Research Fire-Drill
The firkin was a British measure equal to 56 lbs for butter and 64 lbs for soap, 100 lbs of beef, 100 lbs of pork and nine gallons of beer. Research Firkin
The firlot was an old Scottish measure of capacity containing a quarter of a boll, being 2214 cubic inches of wheat and 3232 cubic inches of barley. Research Firlot
The First International was an international workers' association founded in 1864 by Karl Marx to promote the joint political action of the working classes in all countries. It was dissolved in 1876. Research First International
Formerly in Britain first-class hard labour was a prison sentence in which the prisoner slept on a plank bed without a mattress and spent between six and eight hours a day turning a hard crank of treading a wheel. Research First-Class Hard Labour
Firth is the Scottish name for a narrow arm of the sea, usually the outlet of a river. The English equivalent, frifth is a result of simple translation. Research Firth
Properly, a fiscus is a wicker basket or pannier. However, from the Roman custom of carrying money in such receptacles the word came to mean a money- chest, and, after establishment of the empire, the treasury of the emperor as distinct from that of the state which was called aerarium. Research Fiscus
A fish-hook is a curved, barbed, and pointed steel wire used for catching fish. Redditch in Worcestershire and Limerick were traditionally the chief British seats of the hand-made fish-hook manufacture. The Limerick hook, which had the greatest reputation, had a barb that was forged solid, and then filed into the proper shape, while ordinary hooks had a barb that was raised by cutting into the wire. By 1900 hook-making machines were common, especially in the United States, where the wire was run into the machine, and on the other side the hook dropped out completed, with the exception that it had to be tempered and coloured. Research Fish-Hook
In the USA, the fisheries question was a dispute over fishing between the inhabitants of America and Canada.
Previous to the American War of Independence, fishermen of the American colonies had free access to the fishing-grounds of Labrador, Newfoundland and the Gulf of St Lawrence. Subsequently to the war this privilege was protested against by the inhabitants of Canada. The question was long debated. Finally a compromise was effected in the Treaty of Paris on September the 3rd, 1783. United States fishermen were allowed access to the fishing grounds of Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, Labrador, the St Lawrence and the Magdalen Islands, on an equal footing with British fishermen, in such parts as were unsettled or where permission could be obtained from the settlers.
The War of 1812 did away with this treaty, the fishery right was denied the United States and Canadian Governors were instructed to exclude American fishermen. A commission of the two countries decided in 1818 that the United States should forever have the right to fish on the western and northern coast of Newfoundland and the Magdalens only. Reciprocal trade being established between the United States and Canada by the Treaty of 1847, fishing was allowed the former in all British colonies except Newfoundland, which refused consent. This treaty was terminated in 1866 by the United States and the conditions of 1818 were revived.
By the Treaty of Washington in 1871, the United States fishermen were allowed to take fish of any description, except shell-fish, in all Canadian waters, the British fishermen to have the same privileges in United States waters north of latitude 39 degrees north. Research Fisheries Question
Fitchet, or fitch is the fur of the polecat. It has a yellow ground, with long, soft, black shining hairs on its surface, which are exclusively used for artists' brushes. The fur is not in great demand for fabrics as it emits an unpleasant odour which is difficult to dissipate. Research Fitchet
Fitz is the old Norman French word for fils, son; and was used as a prefix in certain surnames, as Fitzgerald (son of Gerald), Fitzherbert (son of Herbert), Fitzmaurice (son of Maurice), Fitzwilliam (son of William), especially in the surnames of the illegitimate sons of kings or princes of the blood, etc as, Fitzroy, Fitzclarence. Research Fitz
The five mile act, passed in the reign of Elizabeth I, prohibited Roman Catholics convicted of not attending the established church from going more than five miles from their usual place of abode. Another act of the same name passed by Charles II in 1665, prohibited nonconformist preachers and teachers who refused to take the oath of non-resistance, from coming within five miles of any city, town or borough corporate returning members to Parliament, or of any place where they had preached since the Act of Oblivion. This act was appealed by William III in 1689. Research Five Mile Act
In law fixtures are accessories annexed to houses or lands, which by the fact of their being so annexed become a part of the real property and pass to the freeholder, not being removable at will by the tenant or occupier of the property. The general rule of law is that whatever has been affixed to the premises or put into the land by a tenant during his occupancy cannot be removed without the landlord's consent. Large exceptions are made to this rule in favour of the tenant, covering generally fixtures for trade, for agricultural purposes, and for ornament or convenience; but the removal must not injure the land or buildings of the landlord. Research Fixtures
In its most popular usage, a flag is a piece of bunting, usually but not always, square or rectangular in shape, attached to a pole and used as a standard, ensign or signal for display or decoration, and to distinguish one company, party, or nationality from another. Formerly in Britain, a black flag was raised outside prisons to announce the execution of a prisoner. Traditionally in Britain, when in mourning flags are lowered to halfway down the pole and 'flown at half mast'.
In the army a flag is a banner by which one regiment is distinguished from another. Flags borne on the masts of vessels not only designate the country to which they belong, but also are made to denote the quality of the officer by whom a ship is commanded. Thus in the British navy an admiral's flag was displayed at the maintop-gallant-mast-head, a vice-admiral's at the foretop-gallant-mast-head, and a rear-admiral's at the mizzen-top-gallant-mast-head.
In the navy the supreme flag of Great Britain is the royal standard, which is only to be hoisted when the sovereign or one of the royal family is on board the vessel. All British ships of war in commission carry the white ensign, that is a white flag divided into four quarters by the red cross of St George and having the union flag (or union 'jack' as it is popularly called) in the upper corner next the staff.
British merchant ships are entitled to carry a red flag with the union in the corner. The union is the flag commonly used on shore as the national ensign. To lower or strike the flag is to pull it down, or take it in, out of respect or submission to superiors. To lower or strike the flag in an engagement is a sign of yielding. A sign of mourning is to hoist the flags at a half or two-thirds of the height of the masts, if on land at half the height of the staff. Besides the use of flags as distinguishing emblems, a very important use of them at sea, both by national and mercantile navies, is as signals according to an arranged code. Research Flag
The Flag of the Prophet or the Sanjak-sherif is the sacred flag of the Muslims. It was originally composed of the turbans of the Koreish captured by Mohammed; but the black curtain that hung in front of the door of Ayesha, one of Mohammed's wives, was afterwards substituted. It is preserved in the seraglio at Istanbul. The carefully-guarded banner unfolded at the commencement of a war is not the real sacred flag, though it is commonly believed to be so. Research Flag of the Prophet
Flagellation is a beating, usually with twigs or a whip. It may be employed as a penal punishment for criminals, as a means of correction for children, or as a sexual activity of the sado-masochism family. Research Flagellation
A flail is two pieces of wood joined by a leatherthong or short metal chain and used for threshing. One piece of wood is held and the other then swung. Research Flail
A flambeau is a sort of torch or light made of some sort of thick wick covered with wax or other inflammable material, and used at night in illuminations, processions, etc. Research Flambeau
Fleet marriages were clandestine marriages at one time performed without banns or licence by needy chaplains, in Fleet Prison, London. As many as thirty marriages a day were sometimes celebrated, and between November 1704 and February 1705 2954 such marriages were registered. The practice was superseded by the Marriage Act of 1754. Research Fleet Marriage
Fleet Prison was a famous London Prison which stood in Farringdon Street, on what was called Fleet Market, from the River Fleet which flowed into the Thames. Its keeper was called the Warden of the Fleet. As far back as the 12th century the Fleet served as a Royal Prison. In the reigns of Mary and Elizabeth I it was used for religious martyrs and the political victims of the StarChambers. In 1641 it became a place of confinement for debtors and persons committed for contempt of court, and rapidly acquired a notoriety for every kind of brutality and extortion. It was It was burned by Wat Tyler in 1381, at the Great Fire in 1666, and by the Gordon rioters in 1780 and rebuilt several times before being finally abolished in 1842. Research Fleet Prison
The Flesch Reading Ease is a percentage scale of 'readability' for text documents based upon the Gunning Fog Index, and also taking into consideration the proportion of passive and active verbs. The Flesch Reading Ease rates documents from 0 to 100%, the higher the percentage being the easier to read. Research Flesch Reading Ease
The Flesch-Kincaid Grade Level is a readability grade for documents. It computes readability based on the average number of syllables per word and the average number of words per sentence. This readability score relates to the American school-grade at which most readers could understand the document. Research Flesch-Kincaid Grade Level
Fleta is a Latin commentary upon English law, said to have been written in the Fleet Prison in the reign of Edward I. It has been attributed to William de Brampton, and also to Thomas de Weyland, J. de Lovetot, and Adam de Strutton. Research Fleta
Fletcher versus Peck was an American breach of covenant case brought before the Supreme Court in 1809 and 1810, by writ of error from the Circuit Court of Massachusetts. Peck had sold to Fletcher certain lands in the State of Georgia, which had been purchased from the State. The breach assigned was that the Legislature of Georgia had no authority to dispose of the lands. Peck had averred that the title was good and that by the Act of the Georgia Legislature of January the 7th, 1795, the State was empowered to dispose of unappropriated lands. But in 1796 this act was repealed. The Supreme Court decided that the grant of land by the State was a contract, and that the Act of 1796, impairing the obligation of this contract of 1795, was therefore unconstitutional and void. Research Fletcher Versus Peck
The Flight to Varennes was the unsuccessful attempt by Louis XVI to escape from France and join the exiled royalists in June 1791. He had been prevented from leaving Paris in April 1791, and elaborate plans for an escape were made. On the night of the 20th of June the royal party, disguised and with forged passports, left Paris. However, they were recognised by a postmaster, pursued, and stopped at Varennes. The fugitives were returned and became virtual prisoners in the Tuileries. Research Flight to Varennes
Flint Implements were used by man while unacquainted with the use of metals. For such implements other hard stones were also used, but the most numerous were formed of flint. They consist of arrow-heads, axe-heads, lance-beads, knives, scrapers, etc. Those of the palaeolithic period were unpolished, those of the neolithic polished. Flint implements were still used by some aboriginal tribes at the start of the 20th century, and research and field tests conducted during the 20th century revealed that flint implements can be very effective, as effective or even more so than their metal counterparts for some tasks. Research Flint Implements
A floating island is an island formed in a lake or other inland water, consisting generally of a mass of earth held together by interlacing roots. Sometimes such islands are large enough to serve as pasture grounds. Artificial floating islands have been formed by placing lakemud on rafts of wicker-work covered with reeds. Research Floating Island
Flock is the refuse of cotton and wool, or the shearing of woollen goods, etc, formerly used for stuffing mattresses, furniture, etc. Flock-paper is a kind of wall-paper, having raised figures resembling cloth, made of flock, or of cloth cut up very fine, and attached to the paper by size or varnish. Research Flock
Flogging is the infliction of stripes or blows with a whip, lash, or scourge, especially as a judicial punishment. In Britain flogging existed for a long time as a punishment in the army and navy; but it was totally abolished in the army in 1881, and in the navy it was abolished in 1906. It was made a punishment for certain violent crimes, such as garroting, in 1863; and for juvenile offenders in 1847 and 1850, before later being abolished in English law. The punishment of the knout in Russia and of the bastinado in the East are severe forms of this punishment. Research Flogging
Floreal (the month of flowers) was the eighth month in the calendar of the French revolution. It began on April the 20th, and ended on May the 19th. Research Floreal
A Florence flask is a globular, long-necked flask of thin glass, of the kind that Florence oil (that is olive-oil) and Tuscanwine were traditionally contained in. Research Florence Flask
Florentine Work is a kind of mosaic work, consisting of precious stones and pieces of white and coloured marble, which has long been produced in Florence. It is applied to jewellery, and used for table tops, etc. Research Florentine Work
Fly was a name formerly given to a double-seated carriage or public conveyance; afterwards the term was applied to the horse-drawn hackney-carriages or cabs. Research Fly
A flying-bridge is a bridge made of pontoons, light boats, hollow beams, casks, or the like. They are made as occasion requires, chiefly for the passage of troops. The term is also applied to a kind of ferry in which the force of the current of a river is applied to propel a boat guided by a cable fastened from the one side to the other. Research Flying Bridge
Fodder is all manner of foods given to horses, cattle, and other animals. It includes grass or any plant eaten green, or the same dried for convenience or for use in winter, and grain, beans, peas etc. or artificial products made from any nutritional material. Research Fodder
A fog index is a readability scale for written work. There are various methods of measuring the readability of a text, one popular method is the 'Gunning Fog Index' which simply requires calculation of the average number of words per sentence, added together with the percentage of 'hard' words - those are words not generally understood by teenage school children or those words of three syllables or more (some interpretations claim two or more syllables), multiplied by 0.4: e.g.: ((Total words / number of sentences) + (hard words / total words * 100)) * 0.4. The lower the score, the easier the text is to understand, with television guides scoring about six and broadsheet newspapers, Time magazine and the like scoring about eleven. Research Fog Index
In geography, a fohn is a hot, dry, local Alpine wind produced by the desiccation of an air current in passing over the mountain ranges and its subsequent heating by compression on being drawn into the denser valleyatmosphere. Research Fohn
A Fohn wind is a warm, dry wind blowing down the sides of mountains facing away from the prevailing wind. It is best known in the valleys of the northern Alps. Other fohn winds are the Chinook (the eastern side of the Rocky Mountains, Canada and the USA); the Nor'Wester (New Zealand) and the Samoon (Iran). Research Fohn Wind
Folc-land, that is Folkland, the land of the people, was that portion of Anglo-Saxon England which was retained on behalf of the community. It might be occupied in common or possessed in severalty, but could not become allodial estate or absolute private property except with the consent of the Witan or highest council in the land. From time to time large grants were made both to individuals and to communities; and land thus cut off from folc-land was called hoc-land or 'book-land.' Ultimately the king practically acquired the disposal of it, and the remnant of folc-land became crown lands. Research Folc-Land
Folio is a sheet of paper folded once to make two leaves of a book or manuscript, and hence the term is given to paper of a large size used for this purpose. Research Folio
Folk-lore is a term signifying a scientific study of popular tales, traditions, primitive beliefs and superstitions, popular customs, usages, festivals, games, etc. Folklore, though it takes cognizance of many apparently trivial matters, is of great importance in the science of comparative mythology, and helps to throw much light on the relationships between races, and on the origin and development of religious beliefs and ceremonies. It is, therefore, of great assistance to the ethnologist, the sociologist, and the historian, as well as to the student of comparative mythology and of the science of religion. Research Folk-Lore
A font is the vessel which contains the consecrated water to be used in baptism. Ancient fonts were always large enough to allow of the immersion of infants, the hollow basin usually being about a foot (30 cm) or rather more in depth, and from one and a half to two feet (45 cm to 60 cm) in diameter. There are a few fonts of Norman date made of lead, but with these exceptions the common material for them is stone lined with lead, having a hole in the bottom of the basin through which the water can be allowed to escape.
By a constitution of Edmund, archbishop of Canterbury passed in 1236, fonts were required to be covered and locked. At that period the covers are likely, in general, to have been little more than flat mbveable lids, but they were afterwards often highly ornamented, and were sometimes carried up to a very considerable height in the form of spires, and enriched with a variety of little buttresses, pinnacles, and other decorations, as at Thaxted, Essex;
Eweime, Oxfordshire; Fosdyke, Lincolnshire; North Walsingham, Norfolk; Ticehurst, Sussex ; Ufford and Sudbury, Suffolk; and other places. The forms of fonts varied considerably in different ages, and in the same age in different districts; in many instances, when the fonts in neighbouring churches are of the same date, there is such close resemblance between them as to lead to the conviction that they are all the work of the same hand. Research Font
The Food Council was a body formed in 1925 on the advice of a Royal Commission to investigate charges of food profiteering and to take action in such cases. It had few powers, and the natural fall in prices soon made it unnecessary, however the Food Council did sponsor the Weights and Measures Act of 1926. Research Food Council
Foolscap is a regular paper size of 13.5 by 16.5 inches, so called because it was originally water- marked with a fool's head and cap during the 13th to the 17th centuries. Brewer maintains that the name is an erroneous corruption of the Italian foglio-capo meaning a folio-sized sheet, but concedes that the error must be very ancient as evidenced by the watermark present during the 13th century. Research Foolscap
The foot is a unit of the imperial scale of measurement of length equivalent to 12 inches or 30.48 centimetres. The name of the foot is derived from the length of the human foot.
In prosody, a foot is a measure consisting of a variety of syllables, two, three, or four, in combinations of long and short, or accented and unaccented. In Greek and Latin versa the feet depend on the quantity or length of the syllables, each foot having a distinctive name - trochee, iambus, dactyle, anapest, etc. The same names are applied to English measures, an accented syllable in English being held to be equivalent to a long syllable in Latin or Greek, and an unaccented syllable to a short. Research Foot
A footman was a domestic servant. During the 18th century, pompous and grand-looking footmen strutting through the streets of London caused some degree of resentment among the ordinary population who termed them 'fart catchers', and dismissed them as little more than fashion accessories showing off the wealth of their employers. However, Mrs Beeton helpfully describes the duties of the footman to those starting a household in 1860 as:
Where a single footman, or odd man, is the only male servant, then, whatever his ostensible position, he is required to make himself generally useful. He has to clean the knives and shoes, the furniture, the plate [silver plated metal objects]; answer the visitors who call, the drawing-room and parlour bells; and do all the errands. His life is no sinecure; and a methodical arrangement of his time will be necessary, in order to perform his many duties with any satisfaction to himself or his master.
The footman is expected to rise early, in order to get through all his dirty work before the family are stirring. Boots and shoes, and knives and forks, should be cleaned, lamps in use trimmed, his master's clothes brushed, the furniture rubbed over; so that he may put aside his working dress, tidy himself, and appear in a clean jacket, to lay the cloth and prepare breakfast for the family... He lays the cloth on the table; over it the breakfast-cloth, and sets the breakfast things in order, and then proceeds to wait upon his master, if he has any of the duties of a valet to perform.
Where a valet is not kept, a portion of his duties falls to the footman's share - brushing the clothes among others. If the footman is required to perform any part of a valet's duties, he will have to see that the housemaid lights a fire in the dressing-room in due time; that the room is dusted and cleaned; that the washhand-ewer is filled with soft water; and that the bath whether hot or cold, is ready when required; that towels are at hand; that hairbrushes and combs are properly cleansed and in their places; that hot water is ready at the hour ordered; the dressing-gown and slippers in their place, the clean linen aired, and the clothes to be worn for the day in their proper places. After the master has dressed, it will be the footman's duty to restore everything to its place properly cleansed and dry, and the whole restored to order.
At breakfast, when there is no butler, the footman carries up the tea-urn, and, assisted by the housemaid, he waits during breakfast. Breakfast over, he removes the tray and other things off the table, folds up the breakfast-cloth, and sets the room in order, by sweeping up all crumbs, shaking the cloth, and laying it on the table again, making up the fire, and sweeping up the hearth.
At luncheon-time nearly the same routine is observed, except where the footman is either out with the carriage or away on other business, when, in the absence of any butler, the housemaid must assist.
For dinner, the footman lays the cloth, taking care that the table is not too near the fire, if there is one, and that passage-room is left. A table-cloth should be laid without a wrinkle; and this requires two persons; over this the slips are laid, which are usually removed preparatory to placing dessert on the table. He prepares knives, forks, and glasses, with five or six plates for each person. This done, he places chairs enough for the party, distributing them equally on each side of the table, and opposite to each a napkin neatly folded within it a piece of bread or small roll, and a knife on the right side of each plate, a fork on the left, and a carving-knife and fork at the top and bottom of the table, outside the others, with the rests opposite to them, and a gravy-spoon beside the knife. The fish-slice should be at the top, where the lady of the house with the assistance of the gentleman next to her, divides the fish, and the soup-ladle at the bottom: it is sometimes usual to add a desert-knife and fork; at the same time , on the right side also of each plate, put a wine-glass for as many kinds of wine as it is intended to hand round, and a finger-glass or glass-cooler about four inches [nine centimetres] from the edge. The latter are frequently put on the table with the dessert.
About half an hour before dinner, he rings the dinner-bell, where that is the practice, and occupies himself with carrying up everything he is likely to require. At the expiration of the time, having communicated with the cook, he rings the real dinner-bell, and proceeds to take it up with such assistance as he can obtain. Having ascertained that all is in order, that his own dress is clean and presentable, and his white cotton gloves are without a stain, he announces in the drawing-room that dinner is served, and stands respectfully by the door until the company are seated: he places himself on the left, behind his master, who is to distribute the soup; where soup and fish are served together, his place will be at his mistress's left hand; but he must be on the alert to see that whoever is assisting him, whether male or female, are at their posts. If any of the guests has brought his own servant with him, his place is behind his master's chair, rendering such assistance to others as he can, while attending to his master's wants throughout the dinner, so that every guest has what he requires. This necessitates both activity and intelligence, and should be done without bustle, without asking any questions, except where it is the custom of the house to hand round dishes or wine, when it will be necessary to mention, in a quiet and unobtrusive manner, the dish or wine you present.
When required to go out with the carriage, it is the footman's duty to see that it has come to the door perfectly clean, and that the glasses and sashes, and linings are free from dust. In receiving messages at the carriage door, he should turn his ear to the speaker, so as to comprehend what is said, in order that he may give his directions to the coachman clearly. When the house he is to call at is reached, he should knock, and return to the carriage for orders. In closing the door upon the family, he should see that the handle is securely turned, and that no part of the ladies' dress is shut in.
It is the footman's duty to carry messages or letters for his master or mistress to their friends, to the post, or to the tradespeople; and nothing is more important than dispatch and exactness in doing so, although writing even the simplest message is now the ordinary and very proper practice.
In addition, footmen were also required to reserve seats in the family's box at the theatre, awaiting the arrival of the family. To lay out and wait at table for evening receptions and games of cards. To open and close doors behind visitors and to announce visitors upon directing them into the drawing room where the master or mistress awaited. Research Footman
Forbes MacKenzie Act was the popular title of an act for the better regulation of the public-houses of Scotland, passed on the 15th of August, 1853. It was introduced in the House of Commons by Forbes MacKenzie, member for Liverpool, although its author was LordKinnaird. Research Forbes MacKenzie Act
Forceps is a general name for a two-bladed instrument on the principle of pincers or tongs, used for seizing and holding, and for extracting objects, which it would be impracticable thus to treat with the fingers. Such instruments are used by watchmakers and jewellers in delicate operations, by dentists in forcibly extracting teeth, for grasping and holding parts in dissection, for extracting any tiling from a wound, taking up an artery, and by accoucheurs. Research Forceps
Forcing is a method of cultivation by which plants, flowers, and fruits are raised at an earlier season than the natural one by protecting them under glass, in hot or cold frames, by using stimulating fertilizers, and other means. Forcing is not a new invention, it has been used since at least 1900. Research Forcing
The Ford Escort was a very popular range of small cars and vans produced from 1980. The Ford Escort cars were produced in a range of engine sizes ranging from 1.3 litres in the popular models providing a top speed of about 93 mph, through to the 2.0 litre Cosworth models providing a top speed in excess of 125 mph. Research Ford Escort
The Ford Fiesta is a series (over 800 different models have been produced) of low cost, economical, small cars of the 'Supermini' genre made by the Ford company. Ford Fiestas have been made in two-door, three-door hatchback and five-door hatchback models, with engine sizes ranging from the 960cc 'Popular' model through to a 2 litre 4 cylinders in line, 16 valve model. Both both petrol and diesel engine models have been produced. Research Ford Fiesta
The Ford Maverick is an American three and five-door model estate car produced since 1993 in a 2.4 litrepetrol and 2.7 litreturbo diesel engine model offering 25 and 29 mpg respectively and a top speed of around 105 mph. Research Ford Maverick
In drawing and painting, foreshortening is the art of representing figures in such a manner as to convey to the mind the impression of the entire length of any object which is pointing more or less directly towards the spectator standing in front of the picture. The projecting object is shortened in proportion to its approach to the perpendicular to the plane of the picture, and in consequence appears of a just length. Research Foreshortening
Forest is a term properly applied to an extensive woodland or to a large tract of mingland woodland and open uncultivated land. In English law, a forest was a territory privileged for game generally belonging to the sovereign and set aside for his recreation. Research Forest
Forestry is the business of growing, harvesting and marketing trees and of managing the associated wildlife and recreational resources. Research Forestry
A forge is a workshop or other establishment in which iron or other metal is hammered and shaped by the aid of heat. The term is also applied to the works where iron is rendered malleable by puddling and shingling. Research Forge
As a metaphysical term, form has been defined as the essence of the thing from which result not only its figure and shape, but all its other qualities. Hence it is all that makes a thing intelligible to the mind, in contradistinction to matter, thus regarded as a kind of unknown substance or substratum. Research Form
The Fortnightly Review was an English magazine so named from its having at first been published every two weeks. It was founded in 1865 under the editorship of G. H. Lewes, and later appeared monthly. It was designed as a vehicle for philosophical Radicalism, but later opened its columns to all schools of political thought. Research Fortnightly Review
Fortunatus is the hero of an old popular legend. He obtained a wishing-cap and inexhaustible purse of gold, which finally ruined him and his sons. The first printed edition of the story appeared in Germany in 1509, but in various forms it has appeared in most of the languages of Europe. Research Fortunatus
The foss-way was one of the four principal highways made by the Romans in England. The foss-way ran from Cornwall to Lincoln and was so named on account of having a ditch (a foss) each side of it. Research Foss-Way
A fouilloton is that part of a French newspaper devoted to light literature or criticism, and generally marked off from the rest of the page by a line. The feuilloton very commonly contains a tale. Research Fouilloton
Foundling hospitals were charitable institutions for the care of children abandoned by their parents and found by strangers. They were first founded to reduce instances of infanticide during the 7th and 8th centuries by church authorities and their numbers increased rapidly during the Middle Ages, especially in France. In 1760 the London Foundling hospital, founded in 1739, had to restrict its intake due to the large increase in the number of abandoned children. Critics of the Foundling Hospitals argued that such institutions encouraged immorality, and argument which gained widespread support during the Victorian period in Britain. Research Foundling Hospital
A foundry is a place where metal is melted and cast into the forms required in construction or decoration. Iron, brass, bronze, and type founding are special forms of the art. Research Foundry
A fountain-pen is a refillable pen which carries its own supply of ink which runs to the writing point as required from a reservoir in the holder. Research Fountain-pen
The Four Years' Law was an American law passed by Congress in May, 1820, limiting the term of office of all persons employed in collecting the revenue to four years. The bill was hurried through with little debate and signed by President Monroe after a brief consideration. Its purpose was avowedly to bring revenue accounts for inspection each year and withhold reappointment for remissness. Its framers have been suspected of passing it in order to strengthen Crawford's chances for the Presidency. At all events, its passage much facilitated the growth of the spoils system. It included all postmasters. Research Four Years' Law
The 'Fourteenth Amendment' was the 14th amendment to the Constitution of the United States, made in 1868 it assured citizenship, personal liberties, and rights to the freed slaves. It guaranteed due process of law and equality under protection of the law. The amendment also made references to representation in Congress and the holding of public offices by Southerners who had been involved in the Civil War. Research Fourteenth Amendment
Fowling is the pursuit of wild birds either by shooting or trapping them, either for food or for their feathers. It includes a variety of methods, such as the catching of small birds by nets; the taking of ducks and other water-fowl in decoys; the lowering of persons over the brink of precipices to seize the birds that lodge in their hollows and shelves, etc. Research Fowling
Foxing is a term applied to brown spots that appear in old paper and are caused by moulds or by metal impurities left in the paper during its manufacture. Foxing is a common problem in old books, and may be repaired by an expert using an appropriate bleach. The particular bleach used being dependant upon the nature of the paper. Research Foxing
Fra is an Italian prefix, derived from the word frate, brother, and used before the names of monks; for instance, Fra Giovanni, brother John. Research Fra
John Francis, a youth, fired a pistol at queen Victoria as she was riding down Constitution-hill, in an open barouche, accompanied by Prince Albert in May 1842. The queen was uninjured. The palace having heard of the youth's plans, the queen had commanded that none of her ladies of court should attend her. Francis was condemned to death, but was transported for life. He was liberated on ticket-of-leave in 1867. Research Francis' Assault
Frangipani was a perfume invented by the Marquis Frangipani, Marechal des Armees of Louis XIII of France. It was a powder composed of every spice then known, with the addition of ground orris-root and musk. Later it was prepared from the flower of the West Indian red jasmine tree. Research Frangipani
The Frankfort Land Company was a company formed in 1686 of wealthy and distinguished persons of Germany and Holland. The members were chiefly Pietists, and they had intended going to Pennsylvania themselves, but gave up the idea, so the colonists were led by Francis Daniel Pastorius, a lawyer and scholar. They went to America in 1683, and began the foundation of Germantown the same year. Later the company was organized, and 25000 acres were purchased from William Penn. Research Frankfort Land Company
Frankincense is a name given to the oleo-resinous exudations from different species of conifers. American frankincense is obtained as a soft, yellow, resinous solid, with a characteristic turpentine odour, from Pinus Taeda. Another kind is exuded by the spruce fir, and forms a soft solid, the colour of which varies from white to violet red. From this Burgundy pitch is prepared by melting in water and straining through a cloth. The frankincense employed in religious ceremonies (also called also incense and olibanum) is a gum-resin obtained from Boswellia thurifera (or serrata), a tree somewhat resembling the sumach, belonging to the Amyridaceae, and inhabiting the mountains of India. It comes in semi-transparent yellowish tears, or sometimes in masses and possesses a bitter and nauseous taste, and is capable of being pulverized. When burned it exhales a strong aromatic odour, on which account it was much employed in the ancient temples, and still continues to be used in Catholic churches. Research Frankincense
The Franking Privilege was a privilege in the USA formerly enjoyed by the President, Vice-President, the Cabinet officers, the members of Congress, the delegates from the Territories and a few others, of sending mail matter free. To each of the first four Presidents this privilege was voted for the remainder of his life, and it was voted to the widows of ex-Presidents. The privilege as regards individuals was abolished in February, 1873, but there was still a provision permitting packages and business letters to be sent free from the departments for some time after. Research Franking Privilege
A fraternity is an association of people who unite to promote their common interest, business or pleasure. In this wide sense it includes all secret and benevolent societies, the monastic and sacerdotal congregations, the orders of knighthood, and also guilds, trades-unions, and the like. In a limited sense it is applied to religious societies for pious practices and benevolent objects.
Fraternities were often formed during the middle ages, from a desire of imitating the holy orders. Many of these societies, which did not obtain or did not seek the acknowledgment of the church, had the appearance of separatists, which subjected them to the charge of heresy. The pious fraternities which were formed under the direction of the church, or were acknowledged by it, were either required by their rules to afford assistance to travellers, to the unfortunate, the distressed, the sick, and the deserted, on account of the inefficiency of the police, and the want of institutions for the poor, or to perform certain acts of penitence and devotion. Of this description were the Fratres Pontifices, a brotherhood that originated in Tuscany in the 12th century, where they maintained establishments on the banks of the Arno, to enable travellers to cross the river, and to succour them in case of distress. A similar society was afterwards formed in France, where they built bridges and hospitals, maintained ferries, kept the roads in repair, and provided for the security of the highways. Similar to these were the Knights and Companions of the Santa Hermandad (or Holy Brotherhood) in Spain; the Familiars and Cross-bearers in the service of the Spanish Inquisition; the Calendar Brothers in Germany; the Alexiaus in Germany, Poland, and the Netherlands, etc.
The professed object of the Alexians, so called from Alexius, their patron saint, was to visit the sick and imprisoned; to collect alms for distribution; to console criminals, and accompany them to the place of execution; to bury the dead, and to cause masses to be said for those who had been executed, or for persons found dead. There were also Gray Penitents (an old fraternity of an order existing as early as 1264 in Rome, and introduced into France under Henry III), the black fraternities of Mercy and of Death; the Red, the Blue, the Green, and the Violet Penitents, so called from the colour of their cowl; the divisions of each were known by the colours of the girdle or mantle. The fraternity of the Holy Trinity was founded at Rome in 1548 by Philip de' Neri for the relief of pilgrims and the cured dismissed from the hospitals. The Brothers of Charity were another fraternity whose hospitals were found in all the principal cities of Catholic Christendom. Research Fraternity
The Free Church of Scotland is a Presbyterian church organized as a separate body from the Established Church in May, 1843. The Queen Anne Act of 1712, which restored patronage in Scotland, was for long the chronic cause of schism and discontent in the Scottish church, unwelcome clergymen often being appointed to church livings.
In 1834 the General Assembly passed a veto act, which declared that no minister should be intruded into a parishchurch against the will of the people, and that a majority of male heads of families, full members of the church, should be able to bar an obnoxious presentee. This act before long created litigation, and the ecclesiastical and civil powers came into conflict. The struggle was brought to an issue by the judgment of the House of Lords in 1842, affirming a decree of the Court of Session, which required the presbytery of Auchterarder to induct the presentee to Auchterarderparish without regard to the dissent of the parishioners. In May, 1843, the members of the General Assembly had been elected and were convened at Edinburgh, when the Reverend Dr. David Welsh, who had been moderator of the last Assembly, instead of constituting the meeting in the ordinary manner, rose and read a protest, pointing out that the civil courts had undue powers of interference with the Established Church, and concluding by asserting the right of the protesters, in the circumstances, to withdraw to a separate place of meeting for the purpose of taking steps on behalf of themselves and their adherents for separating in an orderly way from the Establishment, but still maintaining the Confession of Faith and Standards of the Church of Scotland as heretofore understood.
After reading this document the moderator and other members of Assembly, together with those adhering to them, withdrew to another place of meeting (the Tanfield Hall, Canonmills), and constituted themselves the Free Church of Scotland. They elected Dr. Chalmers as their moderator, and proceeded with the business before them. Although thus denuded of the temporal benefits of an establishment, they declared themselves to be the true national church of the Reformation, and did not object to the endowment and establishment of religion by the state. In later years, however, a decided majority of the Free Churchclergy gave up the doctrine of the lawfulness of the establishment of the church by the state, and became converts to the 'voluntary principle'. The deed of demission, or resignation of livings, was signed by 474 ministers and professors. A sustentation fund was instituted for the maintenance of the ministers, to be supplied by the voluntary offerings of the people. In the first year after the disruption the sum of 366,719 pounds sterling was contributed for the erection of churches, between 700 and 800 of which had to be provided for congregations which left the Establishment with their ministers. Colleges for the theological training of the ministry were subsequently erected in Edinburgh, Glasgow, and Aberdeen, Schools were added to the churches in town and country, and normal schools for the training of teachers were instituted. In 1900 the Free Church joined the United Presbyterian Church (established in 1847 on the voluntary principle), to form the United Free Church of Scotland. A small minority of Free Church ministers and members refused to accept the union and claimed to be the true Free Church of Scotland, a claim which the law decided in their favour, the church property passing in accordance with the decision. The inability of the (new) Free Church to make full use of the churches - and other property thus assigned led to legislative interference
to a commission for allocation of property in 1905. Research Free Church of Scotland
Free Cities were cities having an independent government of their own, and virtually forming states by themselves. The name was given to certain cities of Germany which were members of the German Confederation, and exercised sovereign jurisdiction within their own boundaries. At the time of the French Revolution the free or 'imperial' cities numbered no fewer than fifty-one; but all except Hamburg, Lubeck, and Bremen, had been deprived of their special privileges by the start of the 20th century. Research Free City
The term Free Lance was originally a soldier who fought as a mercenary for anyone who would pay him for his service. Now the term is applied to anyone who works for anyone who will pay them, but is not on the regular staff of any company, such as a writer for example. Research Free Lance
Free Libraries are libraries supported by municipalities, counties or charitable organisations etc. available to the public without charge. The first was established in Manchester in 1653. Research Free Libraries
The Free Society of Traders were a Welsh colonisation company formed in 1682 to establish colonies in Pennsylvania. On March the 20th, 1682, William Penn sold to the company the Manor of Frank, with privileges of local self-government and later 20,000 acres of land. Research Free Society of Traders
The Free Soil Party was an American political party which came into existence in 1848 and advocated non-extension of slavery in the newly acquired territory of the United States. It was composed of Abolitionists - formerly Democrats and Whigs, who had left their party conventions upon their failure to support that issue. Their first convention was held in 1848 when they polled a large popular vote, but secured no electoral count. Their second convention in 1852 was held at Pittsburgh and secured them less votes than before. In 1854 they opposed the Kansas-Nebraska bill, and in 1856 became absorbed in the newly-formed Republican party. Research Free Soil Party
Freebench was an English right of a woman during her widowhood to an interest, generally one-third, in her late husband's copyhold land. It was abolished in 1925. Research Freebench
The Freedmen's Bureau was a bureau of the War Department of the United States Government, established by Act of March the 3rd 1865, to have general charge of the interests of the enfranchised blacks of the Southern States. It's title was 'bureau of refugees, freedmen and abandoned lands', and it was authorised to assign to the freedmen allotments of confiscated or abandoned lands given over to it by the President for such purposes. It was to continue one year. A bill continuing it for two years was vetoed by President Johnson in 1866, but was passed over the veto. The bureau's general work continued until 1869 and its educational work until 1870. Research Freedmen's Bureau
Freedom of the city or borough, is the right of enjoying all privileges that belong to the burgesses or freemen of the community, such as the right of voting for a municipal or parliamentary representative. Freedom of the city is often conferred as an honour or tribute of respect. Research Freedom of The City
Freedom of the Press is the right for a newspaper to publish what it likes without censorship by the government or other authorities. During British rule of the colonies this freedom was much restricted by the Star Chamber Press-censorship regulation of 1637, which was confirmed by Parliament in 1643.
In the original Constitution of the United States there was no provision regarding the freedom of the press, it being left to be regulated by the States in accordance with the established opinion of the people. But the first Congress passed an amendment to the Constitution securing the freedom of the press against the Federal Government. Previous to this the States had nearly all inserted in their constitutions clauses permitting freedom of speech and publication to every citizen. Citizens were of course held responsible for abuses of this liberty. In States, as New York and New Jersey, where no such provision was made in the original Constitution, the freedom of the press was considered as established under the common law, but provisions to that effect were embodied in later constitutions. Research Freedom of the Press
Freemasonry is a term applied to the organization of a society calling themselves free and accepted masons, and all the mysteries therewith connected. This society, if we can reckon as one a number of societies, many of which are unconnected with each other, though they have the same origin and a great similarity in their constitution, extends over almost all parts of the globe, and is consequently of the greatest service to travellers who are members of the craft. According to its own peculiar language it. is founded on the practice of social and moral virtue. It claims the character of charity in the most extended sense; and brotherly love, relief, and truth are inculcated in it. Fable and imagination have traced back the origin of freemasonry to the Roman Empire, to the Pharaohs, the temple of Solomon, the Tower of Babel, and even to the building of Noah's ark. In reality it took its rise in the middle ages along with other incorporated crafts. Skilled masons moved from place to place to assist in building the magnificentsacred structures - cathedrals, abbeys, etc - which had their origin in these times, and it was essential for them to have some signs by which, on coming to a strange place, they could be recognized as real craftsmen and not impostors.
Freemasonry in its modified and more modern form dates only from the 17th century. The modern ritual is said to have been partly borrowed from the Rosicrucians and knights templars, and partly devised by Elias Ashmole, the founder of the Ashmolean Museum. Freemasonry, thus modified, soon began to spread over the world. In 1725 it was introduced into France by Lord Berwentwater; and in 1733 the first American lodge was established. The United Grand Lodge of England recognizes only two species of Freemasonry - the Craft and the Royal Arch; Scotch, Irish, American, and Continental lodges acknowledge higher degrees; but these, with the exception of the Mark Degree and not universal. In ordinary freemasonry there are three grades - those of apprentice, fellow-craft and master-mason - each of which has its peculiar initiation ceremonies; the last of these grades, however, is necessary to the attainment of the full rights and privileges of brotherhood.
At the end of the 20th century the Freemasonry were linked national organisations open to men and women over 21, united by the possession of a common code of morals and beliefs, and of certain traditional 'secrets'. Apart from requiring a belief in the ' Great Architect of the Universe' and acceptance of its moral code, English Freemasons maintain strict impartiality in politics and religion.
Freemasonry assumed a political and anticlerical character; it has been condemned by the papacy, and in certain countries was suppressed by the State. Both in Britain and the USA the freemasons maintain hospitals and institutions for their sick or aged members, and schools for their orphans. Research Freemasonry
The Academie Francaise (French Academy) is a literary society concerned with maintaining the purity of the French language. It was founded by Richelieu in 1635 and membership is limited to 40 ' Immortals' at a time. Research French Academy
The French Encyclopedie was an Encyclopaedia and the most important work of the 18th century after the works of Voltaire and Rousseau. It originated in a French translation of Ephraim Chamber's Cyclopaedia. Diderot was appointed to edit it, and enlisted the ablest men of the time as contributors. D'Alembert (who wrote the famous Discours preliminaire) edited the mathematics; Rousseau wrote the musical articles; Daubenton, those connected with natural history; the Abbe Yvon, those on logic, metaphysics, and ethics; Toussaint, those on jurisprudence ; Buffon contributed the article Nature; and Montesquieu, Voltaire, Euler, Marmontel, D'Holbach, Turgot, Grimm, and Condorcet took some share in the great work. Diderot himself was a prolific contributor on a wide variety of topics. The prospectus appeared in November, 1750, and the first volume in 1751, the whole being completed, despite fierce opposition, in 1765. Research French Encyclopedie
The French Exhibition was held at Earl's Court, London from May to September 1890. The exhibition consisted mainly of objects which had been displayed at the Universal Exhibition in Paris in 1889, and included works of art, manufactured goods, books, panoramas of parts of Paris and a hippodrome. Perhaps the high point of the exhibition was a chariot drawn by three African lions which was driven around the arena. Research French Exhibition
The French Revolution occurred in 1789 and overthrew the despotic Bourbon Monarchy, only to itself be overthrown by the Empire of Napoleon. In 1830 another revolution overthrew the again reigning monarchy, and again in 1848. Research French Revolution
Fresco Painting is a method of mural painting in water colours on fresh or wet grounds of lime or gypsum. Mineral or earthy pigments are employed, which resist the chemical action of lime. In drying, the colours are incorporated with the plaster, and are thereby rendered as permanent as itself.
In producing fresco paintings, a finished drawing on paper, called a cartoon, exactly the size of the intended picture, is first made, to serve as a model. The artist then has a limited portion of the wall covered over with a fine sort of plaster, and upon this he traces from his cartoon the part of the design suited fur the space. As it is necessary to the success and permanency of his work that the colours should be applied while the plaster is yet damp, no more of the surface is plastered at one time than what the artist can finish in one day. A portion of the picture once commenced, needs to be completely finished before leaving it, as fresco does not admit of retouching after the plaster has become dry. On completing a day's work, any unpainted part of the plaster is removed, cutting it neatly along the outline of a figure or other definite form, so that the joining of the plaster for the next day's work may be concealed.
The art is very ancient, remains of it being found in India, Egypt, Mexico, etc. Examples of Roman frescoes are found in Pompeii and other places. After the beginning of the 15th century fresco painting became the favourite process of the greatest Italian masters, and many of their noblest pictorial efforts are frescoes on the walls of palaces and churches. Some ancient wall-paintings are executed in what is called Fresco Secco, which is distinguished from true fresco by being executed on dry plaster, which is moistened with lime-water before the colours are applied. Fresco painting was revived during the 19th century, and works of this kind were executed in the British Houses of Parliament and other public and private buildings, more especially in Germany. Research Fresco
Fricative is a term applied to certain letters produced by the friction of the breath issuing through a narrow opening of the organs of articulation, for example f, v, s, z, etc. Research Fricative
Friday is the fifth or some say sixth day of the week, the name derives from the Saxon Frige-doeg, the day sacred to Freya. Friday having been the day of the Crucifixion, the Roman Catholic church holds Friday as the weekly fast day. Friday being the day of Adam's creation, the Islam religion holds
Friday as the weekly day of prayer. Research Friday
Frith is the English name for a narrow arm of the sea, usually the outlet of a river. It is a result of the simple translation of the Scottish firth. Research Frifth
A Frith Gild was a Saxon voluntary association of neighbours for purposes of order and self-defence. They repressed theft, traced stolen cattle and indemnified parties robbed from a common fund raised by subscription of the members. Research Frith Gild
A frithstool or freedstool (literally the seat of peace) was a seat or chair placed near the Altar in some churches, forming the last and most sacred refuge for those who claimed the privilege of sanctuary within them, and for the violation of which the severest punishment was decreed. They were frequently, if not always, of stone and according to Spelman that at Beverley had this inscription; " Haec sedes lapidea freedstoll dicitur i.e. pacis cathedra, ad quam reus fugiendo perveniens omnimodam habet securitatem'. Frithstools still exist in the church at Hexham, and Beverleyminster, both in the north aisle of the chancel; the former of these has the seat hollowed out in a Semicircular form, and is slightly ornamented with patterns of Norman character; that at Beverley is very crude and plain. Research Frithstool
The Fronde was a French party during the minority of Louis XIV, which waged civil war against the court party on account of the heavy fiscal impositions laid on thepeople by Cardinal Maxarin, whom the queen-mother had appointed prime-minister after the decease of Louis XIII in 1648. At the head of the Fronde stood the Cardinal de Retz, and latterly the Prince LouisConde. The result of this contest, which lasted from 1648 to 1654, served only to strengthen the royal power. Research Fronde
Frost is the name given to the state of the weather when the temperature is below the freezing-point of water. The intensity of the cold in frost is conveniently indicated by the popular expression so many degrees of frost, which means that the temperature of the atmosphere is so many degrees below the point at which the freezing of water commences.
Frost is often very destructive to vegetation, owing to the fact that water, which is generally the chief constituent of the juices of plants, expands when freezing, and bursts, and thus destroys, the vesicles of the plant. In the same way rain-water, freezing in the crevices of rocks and roads, breaks up their surfaces, and often detaches large fragments.
Hoar-frost is frozen dew. It may either freeze while it is falling, when it is found loosely scattered on the ground; or being deposited as dew in the early part of the night it may freeze during a subsequent part of it, owing to radiation. It is generally seen most profusely in spring and autumn; because at those times, while on clear nights the cold is sufficient to freeze the dew, the days are at the same time sufficiently warm to cause a very considerable quantity of moisture to evaporate into the air. Research Frost
Frottage is the practice of rubbing oneself against, or touching, the clothed bodies of other people, usually in a crowd, for sexual gratification. Research Frottage
The fugitive slave bill was passed by the American legislature in 1850. It imposed a fine of 1000 dollars and six months' imprisonment on any person harbouring fugitive slaves or aiding in their escape. The law was declared to be unconstitutional by the judges of the superior court in 1855 and was repealed in 1864. Research Fugitive Slave Bill
In all the American colonies provision was made by law for the arrest and return of fugitive slaves. The articles of confederation between the New England colonies in 1643 provided for mutual restoration between those colonies. Somersett's case prevented extradition from England. The Ordinance for the Northwest Territory provided for return of fugitives thence.
The Constitution of 1787 provided that no fugitive slave, fleeing into a free State, should therefore be free, but that he should be delivered up on claim by his owner. In 1793 Congress passed the first Fugitive Slave Act, providing that, on the owner's giving proof of ownership before a magistrate of the locality where the slave was found, the magistrate should order the slave delivered up to him, without trial by jury. Hindering arrest or harbouring a runaway slave was punishable by fine of five hundred dollars. The law was open to much abuse. Many free Negroes in Northern States were kidnapped. Interference with captures and rescue of arrested Negroes became more frequent as anti-slavery feeling increased in the North. In Prigg vs. Pennsylvania the Supreme Court held that the law must be carried out by Federal authorities alone; States or State authorities could not be forced to act (1842). Several States then forbade them to do so. The escape of slaves to Canada was extensive, and systematically aided by the Underground Railway.
In 1850, as a part of the compromise measures of that year, the Fugitive Slave Bill was passed providing for a stricter practice in the matter, through US commissioners appointed by the US courts. Proof of identity and two witnesses to the fact of escape were all that was required as evidence. The Negro could not testify, nor have jury-trial. Upon this many Northern States passed 'Personal Liberty Laws' for the protection of Negroes. Some of these conflicted with the Fugitive Slave Bill of 1850 and even with the Constitution. The Fugitive Slave Bill of 1850 aroused great feeling in the North, the 'Personal Liberty Laws' in the South. The question of fugitive slaves did much to bring on the American Civil War. The war and emancipation ended the whole matter, and the acts were declared to be unconstitutional by the judges of the superior court in 1855 and repealed in 1864. Research Fugitive Slave Laws
Fumigation is the application of fumes, gas, or vapour for the purpose of disinfecting houses, clothes, and the like. The fumes of heated vinegar, burning sulphur, or the like, formerly employed, are of little value. Research Fumigation
Function is the specific office or action which any organ or system of organs is fitted to perform in the animal or vegetable economy. Vital functions are functions immediately necessary to life, as those of the brain, heart, lungs, etc. Natural or vegetative functions, functions less instantly necessary to life, as digestion, absorption, assimilation, expulsion, etc. Animal functions are those which relate to the external world, as the senses, voluntary motions, etc. Research Function
The Fundamental Constitutions of Carolina were an elaborate constitution for that colony, drawn up in 1667 for the proprietors by John Locke, the philosopher. It provided for a territorial aristocracy, the proprietors at the head and two orders of nobility, called landgraves and caciques, below them. These were to have entailed estates called seigniories and baronies. The proprietors were to be respectively palatine, chancellor, chief justice, constable, admiral, treasurer, high steward and chamberlain. There was to be a palatine's court, a grand council and a parliament. Property qualifications prevailed. Some religious liberty was granted. The whole scheme was unsuited to the needs of a pioneer colony, and never went into practical operation. Research Fundamental Constitutions of Carolina
The Fundamental Orders of Connecticut were the oldest truly political constitution in America, according to Bryce. They were framed in January, 1639, by the towns of Windsor, Hartford and Wethersfield, uniting to form 'one publike State or commonwealth'. The orders provided for two general representative assemblies each year, composed of delegates from each town, one for the election of Governor and magistrates, the other for the making of laws. Research Fundamental Orders of Connecticut
Funeral rites are the rites and ceremonies connected with the disposing of the dead. Among the ancient Egyptians the friends of the deceased put on mourning habits, and abstained from gaiety and entertainments for from forty to seventy days, during which time the body was embalmed.
Among the ancient Jews great regard was paid to a due performance of the rites of sepulture; and among the ancient Greeks and Romans to be deprived of the proper rites was considered the greatest misfortune that could happen. The decorous interring of the dead with religious ceremonies indicative of hopes of a resurrection is characteristic of all Christian nations. Research Funeral Rites
Fur is the short, fine, soft hair covering of some animals, as distinct from the longer, coarser hairs covering other animals. The term fur is also applied to fabric imitating, or prepared from the dressed coat of various animals. Research Fur
The term fur is sometimes distinctively applied to hairy animal skins when prepared for being made into articles of dress, etc, while the name of peltry is given to them in an unprepared state or when merely dried. The animals chiefly sought after for the sake of their furs were the beaver, raccoon, musk-rat, squirrel, hare, rabbit, the chinchilla, bear (black, grey, and brown), otter, sea-otter, seal, wolf, wolverine or glutton, marten, ermine, lynx, coypou (nutria), polecat (fitch), opossum, fox, etc. All the preparation that skins require before being sent to the market is to make them perfectly dry, so as to prevent them from putrefying. This is done by exposing them to the heat of the sun or a fire. The small skins are sometimes previously steeped in a solution of alum. When stored in large quantities they must be carefully preserved from dampness, as well as from moths. The fur-dresser, on receiving the skins, first subjects them to a softening process. He next cleans them from loose pieces of the integument by scraping them with a metalblade. Finally, the fur is cleaned and combed, after which it is handed over to the cutter, who cuts the furs out into the various shapes required to make different articles.
In Europe the furtrade was fed chiefly by Russia, which yielded great quantities of furs, especially in the Asiatic portion of her dominions. Austria, Turkey, Scandinavia, etc, also yielded a certain quantity.
The furtrade of America has long been highly important, and several great trading companies were engaged in it, of which the Dutch East India Company was first. The French early took up the furtrade in Canada, and their chain of forts and trading posts at one time extended from Hudson's Bay to New Orleans. Quebec and Montreal were at first trading posts. In 1670 Charles II granted to Prince Rupert and others a charter empowering them to trade exclusively with the aborigines of the Hudson's Bay region. A company, then and after called the Hudson's Bay Company, was formed, which for a period of nearly two centuries possessed a monopoly of the furtrade in the vast tract of country known as the Hudson's Bay Territory. In the winter of 1783-1784 another company was formed at Montreal, called, the North-west fur Company, which disputed the right of the Hudson's Bay Company, and actively opposed it. After a long and bitter rivalry the two companies united in 1821, retaining the name of Hudson's Bay Company. The monopoly which had hitherto been enjoyed by the original company about Hudson's Bay was much extended; but in 1868 an act of parliament was passed to make provision for the surrender, upon certain terms, of all the territories belonging to the company, and for their incorporation with the Dominion of Canada. In 1869 the surrender was carried out, Canada paying 300,000 pounds to the company by way of compensation. The company still possessed large stretches of valuable land, and many houses, forts, and posts in the region formerly belonging to it. Its operations even extended beyond British America into the United States and to the Sandwich Islands and Alaska. It employed a large staff of agents, traders, Indian hunters, etc. Some of its posts were situated far north, almost approaching the Arctic Ocean.
In the United States, the fur-trade, especially that trade in beaverfur, was an important element in the economic life of all the colonies in the seventeenth century, and in the struggle between England and France for the possession of North America, also in all negotiations respecting the northwest boundary of the United States. In 1809 John Jacob Astor secured the incorporation of the American Fur Company. He founded Astoria in Oregon, and attempted to connect it with Mackinaw by a line of posts and consolidate the whole north-western fur-trade. After the War of 1812 he renewed his attempt. In 1816 the American Congress passed an act excluding foreign fur-traders. Research Fur-Trade
The furlong is a unit of the imperial scale of measurement of length equivalent to 10 chains, 220 yards or 201.168 metres. The name furlong derives from furrow-long or furrow length, when it described the length of a furrow, and also the ancient acre, that is 40 perches. Research Furlong
Fustic is the wood of the tree Maclura tinctoria, a tree of the mulberry order growing in the West Indies. It is a large and handsome tree, and the timber, though, like most other dye-woods, brittle, or at least easily splintered, is hard and strong. It is extensively used as an ingredient in the dyeing of yellow, and is largely imported for that purpose.
Young Fustic is the wood of the Rhus cottinus or Venice sumach, a South European shrub with smooth leaves and a remarkable feathery inflorescence. It yields a fine orange colour, which, however, is not durable without a mordant. Research Fustic
Futhork is the name given to the earliest or runic alphabet in use among the Teutonic or Germanic nations of northern Europe, so called from its first six letters, f, u, th, o, r, k. Research Futhork
The Probert Encyclopaedia was designed, edited and programed by
Matt and Leela Probert
Abbreviations
General Information
Research Fabaceous
