GCHQ (Government Communications Headquarters) is the centre of the British government's electronic surveillance operations, in Cheltenham, Gloucestershire. It monitors broadcasts of various kinds from all over the world. It was established during the Great War, and was successful in breaking the German Enigma code in 1940. Controversy arose in the 1980s when the Thatcher government banned employees at GCHQ from being members of a Trade Union, thereby implying that Union members were a threat to national security. Research GCHQ
Gabilla is a Cuban measurement of tobacco. One gabilla is comprised of 36 or 40 leaves, 4 gabillas comprise 1 hand and 80 hands comprise 1 bale. Research Gabilla
Gaboon is the dark mahogany-like wood, but lighter in colour, from a western and central African burseraceous tree, Aucoumea klaineana, used in plywood, for furniture, and as a veneer. Research Gaboon
Gabriel's Insurrection was an insurrection incited among the Negro slaves of the vicinity of Richmond, Virginia. in 1800, by a slave of Thomas Prosser, called 'General Gabriel', and 'Jack Bowler'. They intended to attackRichmond by night with a thousand Negroes and murder the inhabitants. An escaped Negro revealed the plot. Governor James Monroe ordered out the militia and attacked the insurgents. The ringleaders were captured and 'punished'. Research Gabriel's Insurrection
A gadroon or godroon is a moulding composed of a series of convex flutes and curves joined to form a decorative pattern, used especially as an edge to silver articles. Research Gadroon
The Gadsden Treaty was a treaty negotiated by the United States with Mexico in 1853 by James Gadsden. By this treaty the United States secured 45,000 square miles of land in what is now Arizona and New Mexico. The United States paid Mexico $10,000,000, but received a considerably larger amount from Mexico for Indian depredation claims. Research Gadsen Treaty
The gag-rule was a rule adopted by the American Congress in January, 1836, on motion of John C Calhoun. Congress had long been besieged by petitions from abolitionists all over the country. Calhoun proposed that henceforth all anti-slavery petitions be laid on the table unnoticed. This infringement upon the right of petition only increased the petition spirit in the North, and the 'gag-rule' was, after a long struggle, abolished on December the 3rd, 1844. John Quincy Adams was its bitterest opponent and an ardentupholder of anti-slavery principles in Congress during ten years. Research Gag-Rule
Gallican Church was a distinctive name applied to the Roman Catholic Church in France. The peculiarity of this church consisted not in any diversity of doctrine or practice from those generally held and observed by Roman Catholics in other countries, but in maintaining a greater degree of independence of the Papal see, more especially by denying the validity of many of the decretals issued since the time of Charlemagne, and refusing to allow the pope to interfere with the civil jurisdiction of the state and the sovereign rights of the crown. The freedom asserted in this respect was increasingly recognized by the pragmatic sanctions of 1269 and 1438, and was still more clearly established by the Quatuor Propositiones Cleri Gallicani (Four Propositions of the French Clergy), drawn up in convocation by the French clergy in 1682. These were:
1. The pope in secular matters has no power over princes and kings, and cannot loose their subjects from allegiance to them.
2. He is subject to the decrees of a general council.
3. His authority in France is regulated by fixed canons and the laws and customs of the kingdom and church.
4. In matters of faith his decision is not unalterable (irreformable).
During the French Revolution the Gallican Church practically disappeared, and though Napoleon extorted from Pius VII a concordat for its re-establishment, no agreement was arrived at as to its organization. With the return of the Bourbons the bishops deprived by Napoleon were restored, and a new concordat concluded in 1817; but its unpopularity led the government to exact from ecclesiastics an expression of adherence to the articles of 1682.
The July revolution in 1830 gave full freedom to all denominations, and a clause was inserted in the Constitutional Charter expressly declaring that each person professes his religion with equal liberty, and obtains for his worship the same protection. Latterly, and especially since the Vatican Council of 1870, the position of the Gallican Church towards the popes essentially changed, and the older Gallicanism is now said to be represented by the Old Catholics of France. Research Gallican Church
Gallipoli Oil is a coarse olive-oil used in Turkey-red dyeing and for other purposes, and prepared from olives grown in Calabria and Apulia, the latter being considered the best. The oil was traditionally conveyed in skins to Gallipoli, where it was clarified and shipped in casks. Research Gallipoli Oil
Gallows (once called a pair of gallows) are a structure consisting of a horizontal crosspiece and one or two supporting uprights, used for hanging criminals. Research Gallows
In printing, a gally was a frame into which the compositor emptied the lines out of his composing-stick, and in which he tied up the page when completed. Research Gally
The term Galway jury refers to an enlightened and independent jury. The phrase originates from a series of trials held in 1635 upon the right of the king of England to the counties of Ireland. While Leitrim, Roscommon, Sligo and Mayo gave judgements in favour of the Crown, Galway opposed it. As a consequence, the sheriff of Galway was fined 1000 pounds and each of the jurors 4000 pounds. Research Galway Jury
Gaming, or gambling is the practice of indulging in games involving some element of chance or hazard with a view to pecuniary gain.
In many countries such games, and the collateral practices of betting on events, taking shares in lotteries, etc, are legally prohibited or restricted as frequently associated with fraud and as themselves demoralizing. At other times governments, tempted by the prospect of gain, have openly encouraged gambling by licensing gaming- houses, or instituting lotteries under their own authority. In France public gaming-tables were suppressed from the 1st of January, 1838, but lotteries were still sometimes carried on.
Previous to the formation of the German Empire gambling was encouraged in both of the ways referred to in several of the principalities of Germany. Baden-Baden, in the Grand-duchy of Baden, and Homburg, in Hesse-Homburg, were the two most famous resorts in Europe of the frequenters of gaming-tables. After the formation of the empire gaming was suppressed in these places on the 31st of December, 1872, and after that time the Italian principality of Monaco became the last public resort of this species of gambling, quickly developing into a world famous gaming center even after a relaxation of gaming rules in other European countries during the 20th century.
In Great Britain gaming has been the subject of numerous enactments. Henry VIII made proclamation against certain games, including dice, cards, and bowls, and prohibited the keeping of any common house for unlawful games under penalties of 40 shillings per day for keeping the house, and 6s. 8d per time for playing in it.
By an act of Charles II in 1663 any person fraudulently winning money by gaming was to forfeit treble the amount, and any person losing more than 100 pounds at cards, etc, on credit at one sitting was not bound to pay, and the winner forfeited treble the amount.
Under Anne all notes, bills, bonds, etc, given for money won by gaming were decreed void, and any person paying a loss of more than 10 pounds might recover it within three months as a common debt; or if the loser did not sue, any other person might do so. In the reign of William IV such notes were declared void between the parties, but not in the hands of purchasers or endorsers.
By acts of George II keepers of public-houses were punishable for permitting gaming, and the games of faro, hazard, roulette, and all other games with dice, except backgammon, are prohibited under penalties. This law, with amendments is still in force in 2009 with cribbage, dominoes and other games of pure skill allowed to be played in public-houses for moderate stakes.
An act of 1845, while repealing some of the previous acts and exempting games of mere skill, including billiards and dominoes, inflicted the penalty of 100 pounds (afterwards increased to a maximum of 500 pounds) on any person keeping a gaming-house, with the alternative of six months' imprisonment. Cards and other games could of course be played in private houses, but not in gaming-houses, or in such a way as to constitute a nuisance. Persons playing or gaming in public places could be punished as rogues and vagabonds. Penalties were inflicted for keeping billiard
or bagatelle tables without a license. Lotteries and raffles were illegal (but art union lotteries were excepted). Persons fraudulently winning money by gaming were deemed guilty of obtaining it by false pretences. No suit-at-law could be brought against a loser for money won at play or to recover money so lost, or to recover a deposit from a stakeholder; but this did not apply to prizes at any lawful sport. Later acts provide that betting-houses should be considered gaming-houses. Any person found in a gaming-house who gave a false name or address was liable to a fine of fifty pounds. Research Gaming
In the House of Commons the gangway was formerly a passage across the house, which separated the government and opposition with their respective adherents, who sat on seats running along the sides of the house, from the neutral or independent members, who occupid seats running across. Hence, the phrase to sit below the gangway, as applied to a member, implied that he held himself as bound to neither party. Research Gangway
Ganja was originally the Indian name for the dried shoots of the female hemp plant which have hashishresin on them. Today it is a Jamaican slang expression for cannabis and hashish. Research Ganja
A gantlet is a railway track construction for passing two lines through a narrow space with only enough room for one. The construction is such that the two lines converge so that their inner-rails cross, running parallel and diverge again allowing a train to remain on its own tracks. Research Gantlet
Gargantua is the hero of Rabelais' satire, so named from his father exclaiming 'Que grand tu as!' 'How large (a gullet) thou hast!' on hearing him cry out, immediately on his birth, ' Drink, drink!' so lustily as to be heard over several districts. It required 900 ells of linen for the body of his shirt, and 200 more for the gussets, 1100 cow-hides for the soles of his shoes, and he picked his teeth with an elephant's tusk. Research Gargantua
Garland's Case was an important case in American legal history decided by the US Supreme Court in 1866. In 1860 A H Garland, of Arkansas, was admitted to the Supreme Court of the United States as attorney and counsellor, taking the oath then required. In 1862 Congress passed an act requiring all candidates for office to take oath that they had never in any way engaged in hostility against the Union. In 1865 all persons admitted to the bar of the US Courts were required to take this oath. Garland participated in the war against the Union, but was freely pardoned. He entered a plea before the Supreme Court in 1866 against his taking the prescribed oath of 1865, saying it was unconstitutional and void as affecting his status in court, and that his pardon released him from compliance with it, even if it were constitutional. His plea was granted by the court, on the ground that the act was ex post facto. Research Garland's Case
The Garner Case was one of the saddest of many noted American fugitive slave cases, and illustrates the horror of slavery from the desperate measures a mother would go to try and free her children from that horror.
Simeon Garner, his son and their families escaped from Kentucky to Cincinnati. They were pursued and after a desperate struggle captured. Margaret Garner, in order to save her children from slavery, had attempted to kill them during the struggle, and one was found dead when the fugitives were captured. The courts decided upon returning the slaves. On their way back to KentuckyMargaret made an unsuccessful attempt to drown herself and child. Research Garner Case
Garrote is a mode of capital punishment opriginally popular in Spain. It is a form of strangulation, the victim being placed on a stool with a post or stake behind, to which is affixed an iron collar with a screw; this collar is made to clasp the neck of the criminal, and drawn tighter by means of the screw until life becomes extinct. This word, with the French spelling and pronunciation garrotte, has become naturalized in Great Britain as a term for a species of robbery effected by throttling the victim and stripping him while insensible. Research Garrote
A gate-leg table or gate-legged table is a table with one or two drop leaves that are supported when in use by a hinged leg swung out from the frame. Research Gate-leg Table
Gaussian distribution is a random distribution of events that is often graphed as a bell-shaped curve. A gaussian distribution is used to represent a normal or statistically probable outcome. Research Gaussian Distribution
A gazette (so named from the gazzetta, a small Venetian coin, which was the price of the first newspaper), is a newspaper, especially an official newspaper. The first gazette in England was published at Oxford in 1665. On the removal of the court to London the title of London Gazette was adopted. It was later, during the Victorian era, the official newspaper of England, and was published on Tuesdays and Fridays. It was the organ by means of which all state intelligence, proclamations, appointments, etc, were promulgated, and in which declarations of insolvency are published. A similar official newspaper was also published in Edinburgh and Dublin. Research Gazette
A gazetteer is a geographical dictionary, a book containing descriptions of natural and political divisions, countries, cities, towns, rivers, mountains, etc, alphabetically arranged. Among the more famous gazetteer have been M'Culloch's Geographical Dictionary, Longmans' Gazetteer of the World, Blackie's Imperial Gazetteer, Lippincott's Pronouncing Gazetteer (based upon Blackie's), Saint-Martin's Nouveau Dictionnaire de Geographic Universelle,and Ritter's Geographisch-Statistisches Lexikon. Research Gazetteer
In Judaism, the Gemara is the main body of the Talmud, consisting of a record of ancient rabbinical debates about the interpretation of the Mishna and constituting the primary source of Jewish religious law. Research Gemara
Gemini, the Twins, is the third sign of the zodiac, so named from its two brightest stars, Castor, of the first magnitude, farthest to the west, and Pollux, of the second, fartliest to the east. Its constituent stars form a binary system revolving in about 250 years. The sun is in Gemini from about the 21st May until about the 21st June, or the longest day. Research Gemini
Gender is a set of two or more grammatical categories (masculine, feminine, neuter and common) into which the nouns and pronouns of certain languages are divided distinguished by the modification which they require in words syntactically associated with them, and roughly corresponding (though by no means always) to the sex of the objects which they denote. Gender may be exhibited by a class of words marked by similarity in termination, the termination having attached to it a distinction in sex, as seen in nouns, adjectives, participles, etc. When referring to living organisms, the term 'sex' is correct for describing male or female, not 'gender'. Research Gender
Genealogy is the account or history of the descent of a person or of a family from an ancestor or ancestors in the natural order of succession. Persons descended from a common father constitute a family. Under the idea of degree of relationship is denoted the nearness or remoteness of relationship in which one person stands with respect to another. A series of several persons, descended from a common progenitor, is called a line. A line is either direct or collateral. The collateral lines comprehend the several lines which unite in a common progenitor. For illustrating descent and relationship genealogical tables are constructed, the order of which depends on the end in view. The common form of genealogical tables places the common stock at the head, and shows the degree of each descendant by lines. Some tables, however, have been constructed in the form of a tree, in which the progenitor is placed beneath, as if for a root. Research Genealogy
The General Councils of Constantinople include the second, fifth, sixth, the Trullan, and the eighth. The second was convoked by Theodosius the Great, in 381, to put down the enemies of the Nicene Creed, who had already been restrained by his decrees. The fifth general council was held by the Emperor Justinian in 553, to decide the dispute of the Three Chapters, or three doctrines of the Bishops Theodore of Mopsuestia, Theodoret, and Ibas of Edessa, who were suspected of Nestorianism, and declared heretics by the council. The sixth council, held 680-681, condemned the doctrines of the Monothelites, and declared their leaders heretics. As these two councils made no new ecclesiastical laws, the Emperor Justinian II, in 692, again summoned a general council, which, because it was held in the Trullan Palace, was called the Trullan Council. It instituted rigid laws for the clergy, among them those fixing the rank of the patriarchs and the permission of marriage to priests, which were so offensive to the LatinChurch that she rejected all the decrees of this council; but in the Greek Church they are still valid. The eighth general council (869-870) declared against the Iconoclasts, deposed Photius, and confirmed St Ignatius in the see of Constantinople. This council is not recognized by the Greek Church. Research General Councils of Constantinople
In law, general lien is the right to retain possession of a chattel until payment be made, not only of any debt due in respect of that particular chattel, but of any balance that may be due on general account in the same line of business. General liens do not exist at common law, but depend entirely upon contract express or implied from the special usage of dealing between the parties. Research General Lien
General semantics is a school of thought, founded by Alfred Korzybski, that stresses the arbitrary nature of language and other symbols and the problems that result from misunderstanding their nature. Research General Semantics
The General Synod is the governing body, under Parliament, of the Church of England. It is made up of the bishops and elected clerical and lay representatives. Research General Synod
In logic, Generalization is the act of comprehending, under a common name, several objects agreeing in some point which we abstract from each of them, and which that common term serves to indicate. Research Generalization
A generation is a single succession of human beings (or animals) who are born, grow up, and reproduce their kind; hence, the term generation is applied to an age or period of time between one succession and the next, as the third, the fourth, or the tenth generation. The length of a generation is sometimes estimated at about thirty years. Research Generation
Generative grammar is a description of a language in terms of explicit rules that ideally generate all and only the grammatical sentences of the language. Research Generative Grammar
Generative semantics is a school of semantic theory based on the doctrine that syntactic and semantic structure are of the same formal nature and that there is a single system of rules that relates surface structure to meaning. Research Generative Semantics
Genesis (in Greek, creation, birth, origin), is the first book of the Bible and of the Pentateuch, named in the Hebrewcanon B'reshith (in the beginning), from the term with which it commences. From the Greek translators it received the name it is now commonly known by. Genesis consists of two great but closely-connected divisions: (1) The history of the creation, the fall of man, the flood, the dispersion of the human race, (2) The history of the fathers of the Jewish race. A certain apparent difference of style and language, the occurrence of what seem gaps on the one hand, and repetitions and contradictions on the other, and the different use of the term for the divine name (Jehovah, Everlasting; and Elohim, Almighty), led very early to the question of the integrity of the book, and various critics have assumed larger or smaller interpolations. Research Genesis
The Geneva Bible was a copy of the Bible in English, printed at Geneva; first in 1560. This copy was in common use in England until the version made by order of James I was introduced, and it was laid aside by the Calvinists with reluctance. Research Geneva Bible
In grammar, a genitive case is a case in the declension of nouns, adjectives, pronouns, participles, etc, expressing source, origin, possession, and the like. In English grammar the corresponding case is the possessive case. Research Genitive Case
In Judaism, a genizah is a repository (usually in a synagogue) for books and other sacred objects which can no longer be used but which may not be destroyed. Research Genizah
Genre painting is a type of painting concerned with the realistic depiction of scenes from everyday life. Originally the term was applied to all paintings that were factual representations of nature (animals, fruit, and landscapes), as well as scenes of ordinary life, rather than to works of imagination, such as religious and historical paintings. Genre paintings deal with ordinary life, including family life, sports, street scenes, picnics, festivals, and tavern scenes. They are usually characterised by human interest and by the care and finish with which they are executed.
Genre painting originated in ancient times. Many of the scenes painted on the walls of Egyptian tombs represent the daily life of the people of ancient Egypt. Excavations in the ancient cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum have revealed many genre paintings, both conventional and erotic. In the late Middle Ages genre painting reappeared, represented chiefly in the religious calendars that formed part of the illuminations, or illustrations, of manuscript books; the calendars show people going about the occupations appropriate to each season of the year.
In Italy during the early Renaissance, many of the religious and historical pictures of such painters as the 15th-century Florentines Ghirlandaio and Benozzo Gozzoli and the later Venetians Giorgione and the Bassano family are considered genre paintings because of their contemporaneous backgrounds and costumes as well as their use of people of the times as models. In 17th- century Italy, Mannerist painters such as Caravaggio executed genre paintings of extreme realism and dramatic power. In the 15th century the Flemish painter Petrus Christus in some of his religious paintings represented scenes from ordinary life, and in the following two centuries genre painting rose to its highest level in history with the work of the Flemish artists Pieter Brueghel the Elder, David Teniers, and Adriaen Brouwer. The greatest national school of genre painting was that of the Netherlands in the 17th century. Probably never before or after was the ordinary life of a nation depicted so fully as was the Dutch life of this period. Not only the great masters but also the less outstanding Dutch painters excelled in it.
The most important of the Dutch genre painters were the so-called little masters, including Gerard Ter Borch, Jan Steen, Gabriel Metsu, Pieter de Hooch, Gerard Dou, and Adrian Van Ostade. The three leading 17th-century Dutch masters, Rembrandt, Frans Hals, and Jan Vermeer, also created genre paintings of unrivalled beauty. French genre painting showed a vital development in the work of Antoine Watteau, Nicolas Lancret, Jean Baptiste Chardin, and Jean Honore Fragonard. One of the most noted English genre painters was the great satirist William Hogarth. In the 19th century, genre painting was widely practised in both Europe and the USA Among the outstanding European painters in this style were the French painters Jean Leon Gerome and Jean Meissonier, the English painter William Powell Frith, and the American painter William Sidney Mount, known as the 'JanSteen of Long Island.' Among the many 19th- and 20th- century American painters whose work included genre painting were Robert Henri, John Sloan, George Wesley Bellows, George B Luks, Charles E Burchfield, Reginald Marsh, Grant Wood, and Thomas Hart Benton. Research Genre Painting
Gentrification describes the process by which the character of a traditionally working-class area is changed as a result of middle-class people taking up residence in the area. Research Gentrification
Geomancy is prophecy made from the pattern made when a handful of earth is cast down or dots are drawn at random and connected with lines. Research Geomancy
The geometric mean is the average value of a set of n integers, terms, or quantities, expressed as the nth root of their product. Research Geometric Mean
A geometric progression is a sequence of numbers, each of which differs from the succeeding one by a constant ratio, as 1, 2, 4, 8, ... Research Geometric Progression
Geophagism is the practice of eating some kind of earthy matter, such as rock or chalk. It is most common among non-industrialised races, and was once thought to allay hunger. However, new evidence suggests that some peoples obtain valuable minerals in their diet from geophagism, as those minerals are not available in their normal food, and as such early writers who described the practice as 'depraved' were as naïve as they were prejudiced. Research Geophagism
The Georgia Gazette was the first newspaper printed in the American state of Georgia. It was established at Savannah by James Johnston, on April the 17th, 1763, and continued publication until 1802, when its publication was suspended. Research Georgia Gazette
German Paste was the name given to a kind of paste formerly made for feeding cage-birds, such as canaries, larks, nightingales, etc, during the Victorian era. The following is one of various recipes: one pound of pea-meal, half a pound of blanched sweet almonds, two ounces of fresh butter, two ounces of moist sugar, fifteen grains of hay saffron. Mix and beat well with a little water, pass through a cullender, then expose to the air until dry. Research German Paste
German Tinder, or amadou is prepared from the Boletus fomentarius, a fungus growing on the oak, birch, and some other trees, or from the Boletus igniarius found on the willow, cherry, plum, and other trees. The fungus is removed with a sharp knife, washed, boiled in a strong solution of saltpetre, beaten with a mallet, and dried. In surgery it was sometimes used to stop local bleeding. Research German Tinder
Gerrymandering is an American arrangement of the boundaries of election districts so contrived as to secure an unfair advantage to the dominant party. In colonial American times elections were by counties or by towns, and the gerrymander was not developed. The first gerrymander was said to be an arrangement of Patrick Henry's, whereby Madison should not be elected to the First Congress of the United States. But in reality the districting of Virginia at that time was not clearly unfair. The name arose from a redistricting scheme carried out by the Republicans of Massachusetts in 1811, in accordance with which the Essex District bore a fanciful resemblance to a salamander. Hence the name 'gerrymander' was given to it from Governor Elbridge Gerry, under whom the act was passed. The practice subsequently become well-nigh universal in American politics. Research Gerrymandering
Gerund is the name given originally to a part of the Latinverb which possesses the same power of government as a verb, but also resembles a noun in being governed by prepositions. In early English or Anglo-Saxon a dative form of the infinitive is used to indicate purpose, and is often called the gerund. In modern English what seems to be a present participle governed by a preposition is sometimes denominated a gerund, in such phrases, for example, as 'fit for teaching' but this is merely a verbal noun representing the old Anglo-Saxon noun in -ung. Research Gerund
Gesta Romanorum ('Deeds of the Romans'), was the usual title of a collection of short tales, legends, etc, written in Latin, which was very popular during the middle ages. The book was probably written about the close of the 13th century by a certain monk Elinandus, an Englishman or a German. The separate tales making up the Gesta are of very various contents, and belong to different times and countries, the sources from which they are derived being partly classical, partly oriental, and partly western. Whatever may have been the intention of the original compiler, they very soon were adapted to the moralizing tendencies of the time, and moral reflections and allegorical interpretations were added to them, it is said, by a Petrus Bercorius or Pierre Bercaire of Poitou, a Benedictine prior. After the Reformation the book fell into oblivion. Research Gesta Romanorum
The Gestapo (German: Geheime Staatspolizei, secret state police) were the Nazi secret police formed in 1933 under Hermann Goering. They were administered from 1936 by the SS and were infamous for their brutal methods. Research Gestapo
In geography, a geyser (from the Icelandic geysir which in turn deribes from heysa meaning to gush or rush forth) is a term applied to natural springs of hot water of the kind that were first observed in Iceland. The geysers of Iceland, about a hundred in number, lie about 30 miles north west of Mount Hecia, in a plain covered by hot-springs and steaming apertures. The two most remarkable are the Great Geyser and the New Geyser or Strokkur (churn), the former of which throws up at times a column of hot water to the height of from 80 to 200 feet. The basin of the Great Geyser is about 70 feet across at its greatest diameter. The New Geyser, which is only 100 meters away, is much smaller in size. The springs are supposed to be connected with Mount Hecia, and the phenomenon of eruption has been explained by Tyndall as due to the heating of the walls of a fissure, whereby the water is slowly raised to the boiling point under pressure, and explodes into steam, an interval being required for the process to be repeated. The geysers of Iceland, however, were surpassed by those discovered in the Rocky Mountains in the Yellowstone Region of Wyoming Territory, the largest of which throw up jets of water from 90 to 250 feet high. The hot-lake district of Auckland, New Zealand, is also famous in possessing some of the most remarkable geyser scenery in the world. These phenomena are of three kinds: the puias (fire-springs), geysers continually or intermittently active; ngawhas or inactive puias, which emitsteam, but do not throw up columns of water; and waiariki or hot-water cisterns. This region is remarkable for the number of natural terraces containing hot-water pools or cisterns, and its lakes all filled at intervals by the boiling geysers and thermal springs, but the configuration of the country was considerably altered by the disastrous volcanic outbreak of 1886. Ngahapu or Ohopia, a circular rocky basin, 40 feet in diameter, in which a violent geyser is constantly ng up to the height of 10 or 12 feet, emitting dense clouds of steam, is one of the natural wonders of the southern hemisphere. Research Geyser
A gharry (gharri) was a 19th century horse-drawn hire vehicle. Gharries are still to be found in India, where the term is applied to a, usually horse-drawn, carriage that may be hired. Research Gharry
In Persian lyrical poetry, a ghasel or ghazal is a form of short ode of from five to sixteen couplets, the second lines of which are set to one rhyme, the poet's pen name being frequently introduced into the last couplet. The style was established by the poet Hafiz in the 14th century. Ghasels also occur in Turkish, Arabic and Urdu poetry. Research Ghasel
In India, a ghat is a landing place by a river. The term ghat is especially applied when the structure is large and substantially constructed. These ghats are very numerous on the Ganges, and are great places of resort by the people of the towns where they are situated. Some of them are noteworthy from an architectural point of view, having temples, bathing-houses, etc, at the top. Research Ghat
A ghetto was a part of a city in which Jews were compelled to live, shut off from the rest of the city and forced to pay a tax for the dubious privilege of living there. Research Ghetto
Ghibellinas was the name of a political party in Italy, which, in general, favoured the claims of the emperor against those of the pope. The name is said to be derived from Waiblingen, a small estate belonging to the Hohenstaufen princes. Research Ghibellinas
A ghost word is a word which is taken to be a word, but is not. Ghost words typically occur due to printing or typesetting errors, a classic example being the 'word' 'Dord' which appeared by accident in the 1934 Webster's Second International Dictionary as a synonym of density. In fact, the inclusion of 'Dord' was an error caused by misinterpreting the phrase 'D or d' which are abbreviations for density. Research Ghost Word
Gibberish is a term for nonsense. The word originates with the famous 11th century Arabian alchemist, Geber, who wrote several treatises on the art of making gold. However, as he would have been put to death by the Christian church for such writings, he deliberately obfuscated the texts with mystical jargon, anagrams and other apparent nonsense, hence the term gibberish. Research Gibberish
Gibbons vs Ogden was an important case in the US Supreme Court. Aaron Ogden, having obtained by assignment the exclusive right of navigation of all waters within the jurisdiction of the State of New York, granted by that State to Livingston and Fulton for thirty years, beginning in 1808, filed a bill in the Court of Chancery of New York for an injunction against one Gibbons, of New Jersey, who possessed two steamboats running between New York and Elizabethtown, New Jersey. The injunction was granted. Gibbons appealed to the Supreme Court in 1824. The court gave judgment for the appellant, it being deemed that the granting of exclusive navigation of waters within the State of New York by that State's Legislature, extending to coastwise traffic with another State, was repugnant to the clause of the Constitution of the United States authorizing Congress to regulate commerce. Research Gibbons Vs Ogden
The Gilchrist Trust was a fund of money left by Dr John Gilchrist in 1841 to promote education. The interest was applied to the support of scholarships for young men and women after a competitive examination. Scientific lectures were also delivered under the auspices of the trust. Research Gilchrist Trust
Gilder's compo is a substance comprised of glue, rosin and linseed oil stiffened with sifted whiting and formerly used in the Victorian era to produce relief ornaments such as picture frames and the like. Research Gilder's Compo
A gilder's tip is a small brush composed of a single line of badger hairs fastened between a cardboard handle, and used to pick up gold leaf from the cushion and transfer it to the surface being gilded. Research Gilder's Tip
Gilding is the art of applying gold-leaf or gold in a finely-divided state to surfaces of wood, stone, or metals. It is a very ancient art, being practised among the Egyptians, Greeks, Romans, and Ancient Persians. The processes employed through more modern times have been very varied. Metals are gilded either by what is called chemical gilding, mercurial gilding, by electro-gilding (electro-plating), or by the application of gold-leaf. Copper and brass, for instance, may be gilded by the process called wash or water gilding, with an amalgam of gold and mercury. The surface of the copper, freed from oxide, is covered with the amalgam, and afterwards exposed to heat until the mercury is driven off, leaving a thin coat of gold.
Gilding is also performed by dipping a linen rag in a saturated solution of gold, and burning it to tinder, the black powder thus obtained being rubbed on the metal to be gilded, with a cork dipped in salt water, until the gilding appears. Iron or steel is often gilded by applying gold-leaf, after the surface has been well cleaned, and heated until it has acquired the blue colour which at a certain temperature it assumes. Several leaves of gold are thus applied in succession, and the last is burnished down cold.
One process of chemical gilding was by dipping the article into a solution of gold, what is termed Elkington's solution being composed as follows: 5 oz. (troy) of fine gold; nitro-muriatic acid, 52 oz. (avoirdupois); dissolve by heat, and continue the heat until the cessation of red or yellow vapours; decant the clear liquid; add 4 gallons of distilled water, 20 lbs of pure bicarbonate of potassa and boiling for two hours.
Gilding on wood, plaster, leather, parchment, or paper, is performed by different processes of mechanical gilding. The first of these is oil-gilding, in which gold-leaf is cemented to the work by means of oil-size. In the case of paper or vellum the parts to be gilt receive a coat of gum-water or fine size, and the gold-leaf is applied before the parts are dry. They are afterwards burnished with agate. Lettering and other gilding on bound books are applied without size. The gold-leaf is laid on the leather and imprinted with hot brass types. Brass rollers with thin edges are employed in the same way for lines, and similar tools for other ornaments. When the edges of the leaves of books are to be gilt they are first cut smooth in the press, after which a solution of isinglass in spirits is laid on, and the gold-leaf is applied when the edges are in a proper state of dryness.
Japanner's gilding is another kind of mechanical gilding, which is performed in the same way as oil-gilding, except that instead of gold-leaf a gold dust or powder is employed. Frames of pictures and mirrors, mouldings, etc, are gilt by the application of gold-leaf, or by the cheaper process of 'German gilding,' that is, by tin-foil or silver-leaf, with a yellow varnish above.
Porcelain and other kinds of earthenware, as well as glass, may be gilt by fixing a layer of gold in a powdered state by the action of fire. The gold-dust or powder required in this operation may be obtained by precipitating it from a solution in aqua regia, either by means of iron sulphate or proto-nitrate of mercury. In order that the gold powder may be applied to the surface of the article to be gilt it must be well mixed with some viscous vehicle, such as strongly-gummed water. It is then laid on with a fine camel's-hair brush. Research Gilding
Gill sans is a sans serifalphabet designed by Eric Gill, and probably influenced by the alphabet produced by Edward Johnston for the London Underground in 1918. Gill sans letters are more uniform than German sans serif. Research Gill Sans
Gilt Toys was the old trade term for Victorian costume jewelry or trinkets made from copper or German-silver, with a thin coating of gold or silver spread over its surface. Gilt toys were thus cheaper than gold and silver jewelry, but they could be equally brilliant and as little liable to tarnish. In Britain the industry of their manufacture was chiefly carried on at Birmingham; and in France at Paris and Lyons. Research Gilt Toy
A gimlet is a small tool with a pointed screw at the end, used for boring holes in wood or other substances by turning. A larger instrument of this nature is termed an auger. Research Gimlet
Ginal is a Jamaican term for a person who misleads other people so as to gain tangible benefit. For example, a woman who deceives a man into supporting her or providing her with goods by telling him that she likes him when she really has no interest other than in material gain. Research Ginal
A gingham was a sort of light hearted or playful umbrella made from usually striped or chequered material like a parasol. They were made at Guingamp in Brittany, whence their name. Ginghams were popular and common in Britain until about the Second World War. Research Gingham
The Girl Guides Association is an association founded by Robert and (his sister) Agnes Baden Powell in 1910 to encourage the physical, mental, and spiritual development of girls. The three classes of members are Brownie Guides (for girls aged between 7 and 10), Guides (aged 10 to 15), and Ranger Guides (aged 14 to 20). Its counterpart for boys is the Scout Association. Research Girl Guides Association
Girton College is a college of Cambridge, formerly famous as one of the most noted colleges for women in England. Girton College was opened in 1869 at Hitchin, it was removed to Girton, and opened in 1873. Newnham Hall, Cambridge (opened in 1875), is also connected with it. Originally candidates (sixty in number) jad to be over 18 years old, and they were obliged to pass an entrance examination, held in London and other centres. The originals ordinary course consisted of three years, or nine terms, one-half of each year being spent in the institution. Research Girton College
Glaciers are icy masses of great bulk, harder than snow, yet not exactly like common ice, which cover the summits and sides of mountains above the snow-line. They are found in Switzerland, Scandinavia, the Andes, etc.
They extend down into the valleys often far below the snow-line, and bear a considerable resemblance to a frozen torrent. They take their origin in the higher valleys, where they are formed by the congelation and compression of masses of snow in that condition called by French writers neve, by German authors, firn.
The ice of glaciers differs from that produced by the freezing of still water, and is composed of thin layers filled with air-bubbles. It is likewise more brittle and less transparent. The glaciers are continually moving downwards, and not unfrequently reach the borders of cultivation. The rate at which a glacier moves generally varies from 45 to 60 cm in twenty-four hours.
At its lower end it is generally very steep and inaccessible. In its middle course it resembles a frozen stream
with an undulating surface, broken up by fissures or crevasses. As it descends it experiences a gradualdiminution from the action of the sun and rain, and from the heat of the earth. Hence a phenomenon universally attendant on glaciers - the issue of a stream of ice-cold turbid water from their lower extremity. The descent of glaciers is shown by changes in the position of masses of rock at their sides and on their surface. A remarkable glacier phenomenon is that of moraines, as they are called, consisting of accumulations of stones and detritus piled up on the sides of the glacier, or scattered along the surface. They are composed of fragments of rock detached by the action of frost and other causes.
The fissures or crevasses by which glaciers are traversed are sometimes more than 30 meters in depth, and from being often covered with snow are exceedingly dangerous to travellers. One of the most famous glaciers of the Alps is the Mer de Glace, belonging to Mont Blanc, in the valley of Chamouni, about 1740 meters above sea level. It is more especially, however, in the chain of Monte Rosa that the phenomena of glaciers are exhibited in their greatest sublimity, as also in their most interesting phases from a scientific point of view.
Glaciers exist in all zones in which mountains rise above the snow-line. Those of Norway are well known, and they abound in Iceland and Spitzbergen. Hooker and other travellers gave accounts of those of the Himalaya. They are conspicuous on the Andes, while the Southern Alps of New Zealandrival in this respect the Alpine regions of Switzerland.
The problem of the descent of the glaciers is of extraordinary interest, and various theories have been put forward to account for it. It was shown by Professor Forbes, of Edinburgh, that a glacier moves very much like a river; the middle and upper parts faster than the sides and the bottom; and he showed that glacier motion was analogous to the way in which a mass of thick mortar or a quantity of pitch flows down in an inclined trough. His theory is known as the viscous theory of glaciers, which presupposes that ice is a plastic body, and this plasticity has been satisfactorily explained by Professor James Thomson of Glasgow by the phenomenon of the melting and refreezing of ice.
Water, he discovered, when subjected to pressure, freezes at a lower temperature than when the pressure is removed. Consequently when ice is subjected to pressure it melts; if it is relieved of pressure the water again solidifies. Therefore if two pieces of ice are pressed together, they tend to relieve themselves by melting at their points of contact, and the water thus produced immediately solidifies on its escape. If ice is strained in any way it similarly relieves itself at the strained parts, and a similar regelation follows. This, when applied to the glaciers, gives a complete explanation of their plasticity. Pressed downwards by the vast superincumbent mass, the ice gradually yields. Melting and re-freezing takes place at some parts, at others the gradual yielding at strained points goes on. In the latter process there is no visible melting, but there is the gradual yielding from point to point to the pressure above, and there is the transference relatively to each other of the molecules that constitute the, at first sight, solid mass. If, however, at certain points the strain is intense, the ice becomes extremely brittle. The latter fact disposes of Tyndall's objection to Forbes' theory, which was based on the fact that crevasses proved the brittleness, and not the viscosity of ice. Research Glacier
The Glagolitic alphabet is an ancient Slavonic alphabet, based on the Greek, and used in many old religious works, while in others the Cyrillian letters are employed. Research Glagolitic Alphabet
Glair is the white of eggs, used as a varnish for preserving paintings. Bookbinders formerly also used it for finishing the backs of books. Research Glair
Glasgow University is a Scottish university that was founded by a bull of Pope Nicholas V, 1450-51, which conferred not only the power of creating masters and doctors, but privileges and immunities identical with those of the University of Bologna. In 1577 James VI prescribed rules for the government of the University, giving it a new charter. It was reconstituted by the Scottish Universities Acts of 1858 and 1889, and its constitution became similar to that of the other Scottish universities. The old University Buildings and ground were sold to the Glasgow Union Railway Company in 1864 for 100,000 pounds. Research Glasgow University
Glasnost is a policy of increased freedom in social and cultural matters introduced in the Soviet Union by Mikhail Gorbachov in 1986. A Russian word meaning openness, glasnost was adopted by the Soviet government in conjunction with perestroika (meaning progress), which heralded a new flexibility in the organisation of the economy of the USSR, and facilitated the improvement of relations with the West (by allowing Western entrepreneurs to exploit the markets). However, it led to the creation of a small clique of super-rich and criminals, and for the majority of Russians worse poverty than before. Research Glasnost
Gleaning was the gathering by poor people of the loose ears of corn left uncared for by reapers. This was a common practice in England until the early 20th century, and it used to be believed that the poor could legally claim to be allowed to do so; but it was decided otherwise at law. Research Gleaning
Gleichschaltung is the enforcement of standardisation and the elimination of all opposition within the political, economic, and cultural institutions of a state. Research Gleichschaltung
A globe is a sphere, a round solid body, which may be conceived to be generated by the revolution of a semicircle about its diameter. An artificial globe, in geography and astronomy, is a globe of metal, plaster, paper, pasteboard, plastic etc, on the surface of which is drawn a map, or representation of either the earth or the heavens, with the several circles which are conceived upon them, the former being called the terrestrial globe, and the latter the celestial globe. In the terrestrial globe the wire on which it turns represents the earth's axis, the extremities of it representing the poles. The brazenmeridian is a vertical circle in which the
artificial globe turns, divided into 360 degrees, each degree being divided into minutes and seconds. The brassmeridian receives the ends of the axis on which the globe revolves. At right angles to this, and consequently horizontal, is a broad ring of wood or brass representing the horizon; that is, the true horizon of the earth which lies in a plane containing the earth's centre. The horizon and brassmeridian are connected with the stand on which the whole is supported. On the surface of the globe, as on other maps, are marked parallels of latitude, meridians, etc. On a globe of some size the meridians are drawn through every 15" of the equator, each answering to an hour's difference of time between two places. Hence they are called the hour circles. A number of problems or questions, many of them more curious than useful, may be solved by means of a terrestrial globe. Among the most important are such as to find the latitude and longitude of a place, the difference of time between two places, the time of the sun's rising and setting for a given day at a given place, etc. Research Globe
Gloss is the brightness or lustre of a surface, that is the extent to which it reflects light. In painting, lustre ranges from flat (the absence of gloss) through eggshell sheens and semi-gloss to full gloss.
In literacy, a gloss is an explanation of some verbal difficulty in a literary work, written at the passage to which it refers. The earliest glosses as those in Greek, Latin, and Hebrew manuscripts were interlinear; they were afterwards placed in the margin, and extended finally in some instances to a sort of running commentary on an entire book. Research Gloss
Glossic was a phonetic system of spelling invented by A J Ellis, intended to be used concurrently with the existing English orthography (Nomic) in order to remedy some of its defects without changing its form or detracting from its value. The following is a specimen of Glossic: Ingglish Glosik konvai'z whotever proanunsiai'shon iz inten'ded bei dhi reiter. Glosik buoks kan dhairfoar bee maid too impaar't risee'vd aurthoa'ipi too aul reederz. Research Glossic
A glottal stop is a plosive speech sound produced as the sudden onset of a vowel in several languages, such as German, by first tightly closing the glottis and then allowing the air pressure to build up in the trachea before opening the glottis, causing the air to escape with force. Research Glottal Stop
Glue is an adhesive substance made by boilinganimalhides, hooves or bones. Glue consists of gelatine and chondrin, the proportions defining the adhesive qualities of the glue. Glue made from skins is superior to that made from bones, and the best glue is called 'Scotch glue'.
During the Victorian period large quantities of glue were produced from the skins of sheep, calves, cows, hares, dogs, cats, etc, from the refuse of tanneries and tawing works, from old gloves, from sinews, tendons, and other offal of animal origin.
By a process of cleaning and boiling the albuminoid elements of the animal matter are changed into gelatine. This in a soft jelly-like state constitutes size; dried into hard, brittle, glassy cakes, which before use must be melted in hot water, it formed the common glue used by joiners, etc during the Victorian period. When a solution is mixed with acetic or nitric acid it remains liquid, but still retains its power of cementing; in this state it is called liquid glue. Marine Glue is a cement made by dissolving india-rubber in oil of turpentine or coal-naphtha, to which an equal quantity of shellac is added. Research Glue
A gnome is a short, pithy saying, often expressed in figurative language, containing a reflection, a practical observation, or a moral maxim. Among the Greeks Theognis, Phocylides, and others, are called the Gnomic poets from their sententious manner of writing. Research Gnome
A gnomon is the pin or triangular plate on a sundial which causes a shadow to be cast by the sun onto the graduated dial. Originally the term was applied to structures erected perpendicularly to the horizon, from whose shadow the altitudes, declinations, etc, of the sun and stars may be determined. The gnomon was usually a pillar or column or pyramid erected upon level ground. It was much used by the ancient astronomers, and gnomons of great height, with meridian lines attached to them, were still common in France and Italy at the end of the 19th century. Research Gnomon
Gnosticism is a religious movement characterised by a belief in gnosis (the Greek word for knowledge), through which the spiritual element in man could be released from its bondage in matter. It is regarded as a heresy by the Christian Church. Research Gnosticism
Gnostics is a general name applied to early schools of speculators, which combined the fantastic notions of the oriental systems of religion with the ideas of the Greek philosophers and the doctrines of Christianity. They nearly all agreed on the points that God is incomprehensible; that matter is eternal and antagonistic to God; that creation is the work of the Demiurge, an emanation from the Supreme Deity, subordinate or opposed to God; and that the human nature of Christ was a mere deceptive appearance.
Certain forms of Gnosticism are mere adaptations of the Persian dualism to the solution of the problem of good and evil; while the pantheism of India seems to have been a pervading influence in others. Simon the magician (Simon Magus), of whom Luke speaks in the Acts of the Apostles, is generally looked on as the first of the Gnostics.
The dogmas of the earliest Gnostics may be reduced to the following heads: God, the highest intelligence, dwells at an infinite distance from this world, in the Abyss, removed from all connection with every work of temporal creation. He is the source of all good; matter, the crude, chaotic mass of which all things were made, is, like God, eternal, and is the source of all evil. From these two principles, before time commenced, emanated beings called aeons, which are described as divine spirits, inhabiting the Pleroma, or plenitude of light, which
surrounds the Abyss. The world and the human race were created out of matter by one aeon, the Demiurge, or, according to the later systems of the Gnostics, by several aeons and angels. The aeons made the bodies and the sensual soul of man of this matter; hence the origin of evil in man. God gave man the rational soul; hence the constant struggle of reason with sense. What are called gods by men (for instance, Jehovah, the God of the Jews) are merely such aeons or creators, under whose dominion man became more and more wicked and miserable. To destroy the power of these creators, and to free man from the power of matter, God sent the most exalted of all aeons, to which character Simon first made pretensions.
The Nicolaitans mentioned in the Revelation of St John, so called from Nicolas, a deacon of the church at Jerusalem, were one of the earliest sects, and are described as forerunners of the Cerinthians. Cerinthus, a Jew, of whom John the evangelist seems to have had some knowledge, combined such reveries with the doctrines of Christianity, and maintained that the most elevated aeon sent by God for the salvation of man, was Christ, who had descended upon Jesus, a Jew, in the form of a dove, and through him revealed the doctrines of Christianity, but before the crucifixion of Jesus separated from him, and at the resurrection of the dead will again be united with him, and lay the foundation of a kingdom of the most perfect earthly felicity, to continue 1000 years.
Carpocrates and the sect of the Ophites (beginning of the 2nd century), to whom the term Gnostic was first applied, saw in the Serpent a wise and good being, and carried to its extreme form the inversion of the biblical story. The later Gnostics have been divided into three schools. The first was the Syrian, founded by Menander, a pupil of Simon. This school emphasizes the conflict between Good and Evil - the Supreme Deity on the one hand, and the Demiurge and his angels or aeons on the other. The second was the school of Alexandria, represented by Basilides and Valentinus; the system of the latter being the most complete and ingenious of all. In that light or plenitude, which all the Gnostics speak of as surrounding the residence of the Supreme God, he has placed fifteen male and as many female aeons. The Supreme God, the Unbegotten, the Original Father, whom he also calls the Deep (Bathos), is the first of these aeons; Thinking Silence was his wife, and Intelligence, a male, and Truth, a female, were their children. These produced The Word and Life, the latter a female, who gave birth to mankind and society. These eight constituted the first class of the thirty aeons.
The second class, of five couples, at the end of which stood the Only Begotten, and the third, of six couples, at the head of which stood the Comforter, were, in a similar manner, descended from Mankind and Society, and consisted, like the first, of personified ideas. The officers of this heavenly state are four male aeons - Horus, who guards the boundaries of the region of light; Christ and the Holy Ghost, who instruct the other aeons in their duties; and Jesus, whom all the aeons of the kingdom of light begat in common, and endowed with their gifts. Man and the world were formed by a demiurge out of matter which was partly material, partly spiritual, partly soul-like. Christ, the Saviour of men, when he appeared on earth had a visible body made of the spiritual and the soul-like substance only. At his baptism the aeonJesus united itself with him, and instructed mankind.
A third school of Gnosticism, whose centre was Asia Minor, was represented by Marcion of Pontus, the son of a Christian bishop, who lived about the middle of the 2nd century. Marcion assigned to Christianity, as the one absolutely independent religion, a complete isolation from the Old Testament revelation, the author of which was, in his opinion, merely a just but not a good being. The true God begat many spirits, among which were the creator of the world, the righteous God, and the lawgiver of the Jews. The last, through the prophets, promised Christ; but Jesus, who actually appeared, and is the true Redeemer, was the Son of the truly good God, and not the Jewish Messiah.
Towards the end of the 2nd century Tatian, a Syrian Christian, adopted Gnostic doctrines, and founded a sect. Bardesanes, a Syrian, and Hermogenes, an African, who, in the reign of the Emperor Commodus, apostatized from Christianity, and established sects, bordered, in their hypotheses concerning the origin of good and evil, upon Gnosticism. There have been no Gnostic sects since the 5th century; but many of the principles of their system of emanations reappear in later philosophical systems, drawn from the same sources as theirs. Research Gnostics
Gobelins Manufactory was a tapestry manufactory at Paris, established by Colbert in 1667, on the site of a previously existing manufactory which had been set up by Gilles Gobelin, a celebrated dyer in the reign of Francis I. Colbert collected into it the ablest workmen in the divers arts and manufactures connected with house decoration and upholstery. The Gobelins since then continued to be the first manufactory of the kind in the world. Many celebrated paintings of the old Italian, French, and Spanish schools were, in the most ingenious manner, transferred to tapestry. Research Gobelins
Gold leaf is metallic gold beaten out to form very thin sheets or leaves. It is generally supplied in books of 25 leaves each about 9 cm square. Research Gold Leaf
Gold-beating is the art or process of producing the extremely thin leaves of gold used in gilding, etc. Traditionally, the gold is cast into ingots weighing about tow ounces each, and measuring about 0.75 inches broad. These ingots are passed between steel rollers until they form long ribbons of such thinness that a square inch will weigh 6.5 grains. Each one of these is now cut into 150 pieces, each of which is beaten on an anvil until it is about an inch square. These 150 plates are interlaid with pieces of fine vellum about four inches square, and beaten until the gold is extended nearly to the size of the vellum leaves. Each leaf is then divided into four, interlaid with goldbeater's skin, and beaten out to the dimensions of the skin. Another similar division and beating finishes the operation, after which the leaves are placed in paper books ready for use. Research Gold-Beating
Gold-beater's Skin is a thin material prepared from the large intestine of the ox, formerly used by gold-beaters and sometimes in surgery. Research Gold-beater's Skin
The Golden Legend (Aurea Legenda), is a collection of legends of the Saints made in the 13th century by Jacobus de Voragine, archbishop of Genoa. It consists of 177 sections, each of which is devoted to a particular saint or festival, arranged in the order of the calendar. William Caxton printed a translation in 1483, and another edition was produced by Wynkyn de Worde in 1498. Research Golden Legend
In chronology, the golden number is a number showing the year of the moon's cycle; so called from having formerly been written in the calendar in gold. To find the golden number add 1 to the given year, and divide the sum by 19, what remains will be the number required, unless 0 remain, in which case 19 is the golden number. Research Golden Number
In the Roman Catholic church the golden rose is an ornament of gold consecrated by the pope on the fourth Sunday of Lent. It was originally a single flower of wrought gold, coloured red; afterwards the golden petals were decked with rubies and other gems; finally the form adopted was that of a thorny branch, with several flowers and leaves, and one principal flower at the top, all of pure gold. It is sent to some favoured prince, some eminent church, or distinguished personage. Research Golden Rose
Gonville and Caiss College is a college of Cambridge University. It was founded in 1358 by Edmund Gonville, of Terrington, Norfolk. In 1558 Dr. Caius obtained the royal charter by which all the former foundations were confirmed and his own foundation was established. By this charter the college was thenceforth to be called Gonville and Caius College. Research Gonville and Caius College
Good Friday is a Christian festival held on the last Friday before Easter, and remembering the crucifixion. The word 'good' in the name means holy. In British legend, people born on Good Friday (and also Christmas Day) have the power of seeing and of commanding spirits. Research Good Friday
Formerly in Scotland a Goodman's croft was strip of land in a corner of a field left untilled. The belief was that unless some such place were left open, evil spirits would damage the crop. Research Goodman's croft
Goods and Chattels is the legal and popular denomination for personal property as distinguished from things real, or lands, tenements, or hereditaments. Research Goods and Chattels
The Gordon's No Popery Riots were occasioned by the zeal of lordGeorge Gordon from June the 2nd to the 9th 1780. On Friday, the 2nd of June, 1780 lordGeorge Gordon headed a mob of 40000 persons who assembled in St George's Fields, under the name of the Protestant Association, to carry a petition to parliament for the repeal of the act which granted certain indulgences to Roman Catholics. The mob proceeded to pillage, burn and bull down the chapels and houses of the Roman Catholics first, but afterwards of other persons, for nearly six days. The riot was quelled on the 8th of June by armed citizens, the horse and foot guards and various militia. 210 rioters were killed and 248 wounded of whom 75 later died in hospital. Others were tried, convicted and executed. Research Gordon's Riots
A governess cart was a low-hung, small, two-wheeled, one-horse carriage carrying four passengers on two inward-facing seats with a door at the rear. The governess cart was usually drawn by a pony or quiet cob and while uncomfortable, was a safe mode of transport and derived its name from its use in conveying children. Research Governess Cart
The Gowrie Conspiracy was one of the strangest episodes in Scottish history. It took place in August, 1600. King James VI. while hunting in Falkland Park, Fifeshire, was asked by Alexander Ruthven (brother of the Earl of Gowrie) to accompany him to Gowrie House, near Perth, on the pretext that they had caught a Jesuit with an urn of foreign golden pieces hid under his cloak. On arriving at Gowrie House an attempt was made on the life or liberty of the king, but an alarm being raised, both the Ruthvens were slain, and James VI escaped, though not without difficulty as the Gowries were very popular among the inhabitants of Perth. Research Gowrie Conspiracy
In railway engineering, a gradient-post is a post placed by the side of the track, at a change of gradient, carrying a board slanted to the slope and indicating in figures the gradient, traditionally in England in feet per 100. Research Gradient-Post
The gradual is the psalm, anthem, or hymn, said or sung in the service of the Roman Catholic Church between the Epistle and the Gospel. It is so named from being anciently chanted on the steps of the ambo or pulpit, or of the altar. By an easy transition the name was frequently applied to the Anti-phonary, which was originally one of the three service books of the church, but afterwards in the llth or 12th century included in the missal. Research Gradual
The Graduation Act, was an American act passed by Congress in 1854 to cheapen, for the benefit of actual settlers and for adjoining farms, the price of lands which had been long on the market. Research Graduation Act
Graffiti is writing or drawing done on a wall etc by by a member of the public. The original graffiti was designs and inscriptions engraved with a style upon the walls of ancient towns and buildings, particularly of Rome and Pompeii. Those in Pompeii are in Latin, Greek, and Oscan, showing that the ancient language of Campania was still extant among a portion of the populace. The inscriptions are mostly amatory or humorous, sometimes malicious or obscene. In Rome graffiti occur frequently in the catacombs. Many of these are by Christians, some by Pagans in ridicule of Christianity. During the 20th century graffiti in the western world became much less humourous and political, and degraded generally into simple signatures identifying the graffitist - a style known among its advocates as 'tagging'. Research Graffiti
Grafting is an operation by which a bud or scion of an individual plant is inserted upon another individual, so as to become organically united with the stock on which it has been placed. Grafting can only take place between plants which have a certain affinity, individuals of the same species, genus, or order. The graft does not become identified with the stock to which it is united, but retains its own peculiarities of variety or species. The parts between which grafting is effected must be actively vegetating.
The advantages derived from grafting are the preservation of remarkable varieties, which could not be reproduced from seed; the more rapid multiplication of particular species, and the anticipation of the period of fructification, which may thus be advanced by several years. The principal methods of grafting are 1. By approach This process is intended to unite at one or more points two plants growing from separate roots. Plates of bark of equal size are removed, the wounds are kept together and protected from air. Stems, branches, or roots may be united in this way. 2. By scions - Under this head there are a variety of methods, such as whip, splice, cleft, saddle, crown grafting, etc.
In whip-grafting ot tongue-grafting the stock is cut obliquely across and a slit or very narrow angular incision is made in its centre downwards across the cut surface, a similar deep incision is made in the scion upwards, at a corresponding angle, and, a projecting tongue left, which being inserted in the incision in the stock, they are fastened closely together.
Splice-grafting is performed by cutting the ends of the scion and stock completely across in an oblique direction, in such a way that the sections are of the same shape, then laying the oblique surfaces together so that the one exactly fits the other, and securing them by tying or otherwise.
In cleft-grafting, the stock is cleft down, and the graft, cut in the shape of a wedge at its lower end, is inserted into the cleft; while, in saddle-grafting, the end of the stock is cut into the form of a wedge, and the base of the scion, slit up or cleft for the purpose, is affixed.
Crown-grafting or rind-grafting is performed by cutting the lower end of the scion in a sloping direction, while the head of the stock is cut over horizontally and a slit is made through the inner bark. A piece of wood, bone, ivory, or other such substance, resembling the thinned end of the scion, is inserted in the top of the slit between the alburnum and inner bark and pushed down in order to raise the bark, so that the thin end of the scion may be introduced without being bruised. The edges of the bark on each side are then brought close to the scion, and the whole is bound with matting and a lump of clay put round it.
3. By buds - This consists in transferring to another stock a plate of bark, to which one or more buds adhere. Bud-grafting is the most commonly practised, especially for multiplying fruit-trees and roses, owing to the facility with which it may be performed. Research Grafting
The grain is a unit of measurement of the avoirdupoisscaleequivalent to 0. 0648 grams. It was invented by Henry III who ordered that a grain of wheat gathered from the middle of the ear to be the standard of weight. 12 grains to be a pennyweight, 12 pennyweights to be an ounce and 12 ounces to be a pound Troy. Research Grain
Grammar, in reference to any language, is the system of rules, principles, and facts which must be known in order to speak and write the language correctly. Comparative grammar treats of the laws, customs, and forms which are shown by comparison to be common to various languages; general or universal grammar, of those laws which, by logical deduction, are demonstrated to be common to all. The divisions of grammar vary with the class and also with the method of treatment. In common English grammars the division is generally fourfold: orthography, which treats of the proper spelling of words, and includes orthoepy, treating of the proper pronunciation; etymology, which treats of their derivations and inflections; syntax, of the laws and forms of construction common to compositions in prose and verse; prosody, of the laws peculiar to verse. Although the systematization of grammar had begun in some sort in Plato's time it was chiefly to the Alexandrian writers that it owed its development. The first Greek grammar for Roman students was that of Dionysius Thrax, in use about 80 BC. Comparative grammar can only be said to have existed from the beginning of the 19th century, when the critical study of Sanskrit established the affinities of the languages of the Indo-European group. The names of Bopp, Grimm, Pott, Schleicher, Milller, etc, are especially associated with its development. Research Grammar
The Grand Army of the Republic was an American organisation for former members of the Armed forces, organized during the winter of 1865-66 at Springfield, Illinois, chiefly through the activity of Dr. B. F. Stephenson, late surgeon of the FourteenthIllinois Infantry. The first post was established at Decatur, Illinois, in 1866. The ritual is secret. All soldiers and sailors of the US army, navy and marine corps between April 12, 1861, and April 9, 1865, were eligible for membership, provided they had an honourable discharge. National conventions were held each year. The first commander-in-chief was Stephen A. Hurlbut, of Illinois. Grand army posts were established in nearly every city in the North and West. The last National Encampment was held at Indianapolis, Indiana in 1949. Six surviving Comrades attended that Encampment. The last member of the Grand Army of the Republic, Albert Wollson, died in 1956. Research Grand Army of the Republic
The Grand Remonstrance was a document drawn up by the House of Commons, and presented to Charles I on December the first 1641. It was an appeal to the nation rather than an address to the king, and stated the case of the Commons against the king and what reforms were necessary. Research Grand Remonstrance
Originally a nautical term, a granny's-knot (now popularly called a granny-knot) is a knot similar to the reef-knot but in which the second tie is across, whereas in the reef-knot the end and outer parts are in line. Research Granny's-Knot
A grant of probate is an order from the High Court in Britain authorising the executors of a will to deal with and distribute the property of the deceased person. If the person died intestate or did not appoint executors, the administrator of the estate has to obtain letters of administration. Research Grant of Probate
Graphology is the analysis or judging of a person's character by means of their handwriting, a pursuit that first attained some vogue around 1900. The tendency to regard a certain style of writing as indicative of certain mental characteristics appears to be natural, and is certainly not of modern origin, but the term graphology is modern, being attributed to the Abbe Michot in 1868, who also expounded a corresponding system, though other French writers, besides those of other nationalities, are said to have placed it on a more secure basis. We are told that as gestures, movements of the features and the hands, the sound of the voice, etc, help to reveal a person's character, so also handwriting can give us similar help, writing being the result of a series of small gestures, and the hands being influenced by the thoughts and feelings of the writer. Research Graphology
The Great Bear is a popular name for a constellation in the northern hemisphere. The Great Bear (Ursa Major) is situated near the pole. It is remarkable for its well-known seven stars, by two of which, called the Pointers, the pole-star is always readily found. These seven stars are popularly called the Wagon, Charles's Wain, or the Plough. Research Great Bear
The Grecian bend was an affectation in walking assumed by fashionable English ladies in 1875, from where it spread to America and other countries. Research Grecian Bend
In the first ages of Christianity numerous churches were founded by the apostles and their successors in Greek-speaking countries; in Greece itself, in Syria, Egypt, Mesopotamia, Asia Minor, Thrace, and Macedonia. These were subsequently called Greek, in contradistinction to the churches, in which the Latintongue prevailed. The removal of the seat of empire by Constantine to Constantinople (Istanbul), and the subsequent separation of the eastern and western empires afforded the opportunity for diversities of language, modes of thinking, and customs to manifest themselves, and added political causes to the grounds of separation. During the earliest period the chief seats of influence in the Eastern Church were Jerusalem, Antioch, and Alexandria, the seat of that mystical philosophy, by which the orientalchurch was distinguished. In 341, soon after the synod of Antioch, the rivalry between the Bishop of -Rome and the Bishop of Constantinople began to assume importance, and before 400 differences of doctrine with respect to the procession of the Holy Spirit appeared. The council of Chalcedon in 451 accorded to the eastern bishop the same honours and privileges in his own diocese as those of the Bishop of Rome, and in 484 each bishop excommunicated the other.
The title of (Ecumenical Patriarch was assumed by John, Bishop of Constantinople, in 588, and in the following year the phrase 'Filioque' ('and the Son') was added by the Latins to the Nicene creed (which now read 'proceeding from the father and the son'), an addition to which the Greek Church was opposed.
In 648 PopeTheodore deposed Patriarch Paul II; but a reconciliation of the churches was effected at the Council of Rome in 680. The doctrines of the Greek Church were defined by John Damascenus in 730. The disruption was hastened by the banishment of Ignatius by Michael the Drunken and the consecration of Photius in 858. The PopeNicholas I and Photius excommunicated each other in 867. The schism was temporarily healed after the death of Photius, but Michael Cerularius reopened it by charging the Latins with heterodoxy. He was excommunicated by Leo IX in 1054, and in turn excommunicated the pope in the same year, since which the Greeks have been severed from the Roman communion, though the Russo-Greek Church was not separated until the 12th century.
The presence of the Crusaders in the East aggravated the quarrel; Latin patriarchates were established in Antioch and Jerusalem, and, though on the capture of Constantinople by the Crusaders a Latin patriarchate was set up there in 1204, the schism was revived there as soon as the Latinempire fell in 1262. .Reunion was proposed in 1273 by Patriarch Joseph, and effected, with the acknowledgment of the pope as primate, at the council of Lyons in 1274. The union, however, was annulled in 1282 by Emperor Andronicus II, and in 1283 and 1285 by synods of Constantinople. It was again effected under John Palasologus at Florence in 1439, but was repudiated in 1443 by the Patriarchs of Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem.
In 1453, when the patriarch fled from the Turks, a schismatic Gregory Scholarius was chosen in his place. In 1575 unsuccessful negotiations were commenced with a view to union with the Lutherans, and in 1723 the English bishops even proposed that the Greek and Anglican churches should unite, a proposal revived by the Archbishop of Moscow in 1866. The claims of the czar in 1853 to the protectorate of the Greek churches in Turkey was one of the causes of the Crimean War.
The Greek Church is the only church which holds that the Holy Ghost proceeds from the Father only; the Roman Catholic and Protestant Churches deriving the Holy Ghost from the Father and the Son. Like the Roman Catholic Church it has seven sacraments - baptism; chrism; penance, preceded by confession; the eucharisfc; ordination;
marriage; and unction. Research Greek Church
Green Paints are for the most part compounds of copper and of chromium. The best known greens are the following: Bremen green, or verditer, consisting mainly of a basic carbonate of copper. Brunswick green, a hydrated oxychloride of copper; but the name is sometimes given to a hydrated basic carbonate, also known as mountain green. Chrome and emerald green are oxide of chromium. Emerald green is also used as synonymous with Schweinfurt green. English green is a mixture of Scheele's green with gypsum. Guignets green is oxide of chromium prepared in a peculiar way. Hungary green is a kind of malachite found in Hungary. Rinman's green is obtained by heating zincoxide with a cobaltcompound. Saxony green is an indigo colour used in printing. Scheele's green is arsenite of copper, and Schweinfurt green, Veronese green, and Vienna green, are also compounds of arsenic and copper. Verdigris is a hydrated basic carbonate of copper, often seen in copper coins. Besides these are green colours derived from plants. Of these may be mentioned chlorophyll, the green colour of leaves: sap green, the juice of Rhamnus catharticus or buckthorn, made into a green lake with alumina; Chinese indigo-green, etc. Research Green Paint
The Green-Bag Inquiry, so called from a green bag full of documents of alleged seditions laid before parliament by Lord Sidmouth, was an inquiry held in 1817 by secret committees to suspend the Habeas Corpus Act and prohibit seditious meetings which were frequent at the time. Research Green-Bag Inquiry
Green-ebony is an olive-green coloured wood obtained from the South American tree Jacaranda ovalifolia, of the natural order Bignoniaceae. It is used for round rulers, turnery, marquetry work, etc, and was also formerly much used for dyeing, yielding olive-green, brown, and yellow colours. Research Green-Ebony
The Greenback Labor Party was an American political party that developed from the Greenback party. It was formed in Ohio in 1875. In 1878 a union of the Labor Reform and the remnants of the old Greenback party was effected and was made national by the Convention of February 22 of that year, at Toledo, 0hio. The platform adopted was similar to that of the Greenback party. It advocated the withdrawal of currency from all national and State banks and corporations, a paper currency issued by the Government, and that coin should only be paid for interest on the national debt when so specified. They also demanded an eight-hour law, the prohibition of Chinese immigration, of land grants to railways and of special grants to corporations and bondholders. In 1878 they elected fourteen Congressmen. Their national convention was held at Chicago, on June the 9th, 1880. Research Greenback Labor Party
The Greenback Party was an American political party organized in a Greenback Convention at Indianapolis, on November the 25th, 1874, which assembled to adopt resolutions opposing the Specie resumption bill proposed at that time in Congress and passed on January the14th, 1875. The Greenback party platform advocated the withdrawal of all national and State bank currency, and the substitution therefore of paper currency issued by the Government, and that coin should only be used in payment of interest on the national debt. The Greenback Presidential candidate in 1876, Peter Cooper, of New York, received 81,740 votes, chiefly from the Western States. Research Greenback Party
Greenpeace is an international, non-violent direct action environmental protection organisation which campaigns against and brings to public attention issues affecting the world's environment such as whaling, rainforest destruction, nuclear power and other matters which damage the environment. It is renowned for the bravery of its volunteers who engage in death-defying stunts will no apparent concern for their own safety. So successful have been their campaigns that the French government ordered and sank Greenpeace's chief ship - The Rainbow Warrior - killing some crew members who were asleep on board at the time. Research Greenpeace More information about Greenpeace
A Gregory was a school feast, so named on account of being held upon St-Gregory's day (March the 12th) in which the pupils brought the master all manner of eatables, and the school master in return ignored various misdemeanours. Gregories were common at one time across all of Europe. Research Gregory
Grey describes the infinite shades of colour between brilliant white and black.
Pearly - A very pale bluish-grey colour, paler than slate grey.
Silver - A greyish-white.
Slate - A pale bluish-grey colour. Slate grey implies hardness, conjuring images of the hard, cold natural stone.
Steel - A pale bluish-grey colour. Steel grey implies hardness in much the same way as slate grey, but with the image of the metal rather than the mineral.
The Grey Coat Hospital is a Church of England comprehensive school for girls founded in 1698 at Westminster and reconstituted in 1873. The original school was founded in 1697, opening in 1698, by a group of citizens in response to crime in the area to educate forty street urchins and poor children. The first pupils were boys and in 1874 the old boarding school became a day school for girls. In the 20th century the school became a grammar school before in 1977 becoming a comprehensive, joining with another school (St Michael's) and in 1998 moved to new premises in Regency street. Research Grey Coat Hospital
Greytown was a town on the Mosquito Coast of Nicaragua, which in 1854 was bombarded and destroyed by the US ship 'Cyane'.
A negro had been shot by a steamshipcaptain in May, and the mayor of Greytown ordered the captain's arrest. The passengers of the steamship resisted, among them Borland, the US Minister. The next day Borland was assaulted on the street. In July the 'Cyane' was despatched to the town. CommanderHollins sent to the mayor demanding immediate payment of the extortionate demands of a transit company, with which the town authorities had quarrelled. This was refused. Hollins opened fire and destroyed the town. Research Greytown Incident
Grimm's Law, so called from its discoverer, Jakob Grimm, formulates the principle of the interchange of the mute consonants in the Aryan languages, in words derived from the same roots. For example: p, b, and f in Latin, Greek, and Sanskrit are in Gothic and English, Dutch, etc, respectively represented by f, b, and b, and in Old High German by b (v), f, and p. Certain exceptions to the law are explained by a law subsequently discovered, called Verner's law. Research Grimm's Law
Grinding is a mechanical process in which certain effects are produced by attrition. This process prevails in various mechanical arts, as in grinding corn, etc, the object of which is to reduce the materials to a fine powder; or in grinding metals for the purpose of giving them a certain figure, polish, or edge. In the first case the grinding or crushing is effected by rough stones, or, as in crushing ores, between heavy metal cylinders, or by a heavy stone or iron cylinder revolving upon a smooth plate. The grinding of cutlery is effected by means of the grindstone; emery powder grinds glass lenses and specula. Ornamental glass is ground into facets by stones and lap-wheels. Diamonds and other precious stones are ground with diamond dust.
What is called dry grinding is the grinding of steel with dry grindstones. The points of needles are produced by this means, also the finishing of steel pens. Sand-jet grinding is a process in which abrasion is effected by the percussion of small hard particles on a plain surface, sharp siliceous sand being impelled by a blast artificially produced of steam or of air. By the use of flexible jointed connecting tubes the jet can be turned in any direction. Research Grinding
A grindstone is a cylindrical stone, on which sharpening, cutting, and abrasion are effected by the convex surface while the stone is revolving on its axis. They are made of sandstone, or sandstone grit of various degrees of fineness. Good stones are obtained in various parts of England, especially from the coal districts of Northumberland, Newcastle grindntones being especially famous. The Sheffield grindstone, traditionally used for grinding files and the like, is obtained from Hardsley, about 14 miles north of Sheffield. Artificial grindstones have also been successfully used. Research Grindstone
A grocer is someone dealing in dried and preserved foods and other household goods. Originally the term grocer applied to someone dealing in wholesale (engros), later it was applied to a dealer of sugar, coffee, tea and spices and the like, which in Mediaeval times was known as a spicer. Research Grocer
Grogging is a type of ingenious smuggling, or the evasion of excise duties, by which wooden casks containing spirits over time absorb a appreciable quantity of the spirit into the wood which can later be extracted by rinsing and other processes. The Finance Act of 1898 made grogging, the possession of a cask so treated, or of spirit obtained by the process criminal offences. Research Grogging
Gross, in opposition to net, is a term applied to merchandise, including the weight of that in which it is packed. Thus we may say, 'The bag of coffee weighs 9 kilograms gross,' that is, including the weight of the bag. Research Gross
In art, grotesque is a capricious variety of arabesque ornamentation, which, as a whole, has no type in nature, the parts of animals, plants, and other incongruous elements being combined together. Grotesque was used by the Romans in decorative painting and revived by the artists of the Renaissance. Research Grotesque
In painting, the ground is the first layer of colour. The Italian school preceding and during the time of Raphael employed white grounds, but afterwards, when canvas had superseded panels, the Italian and Spanish schools adopted an oil ground of a dull red colour. The Dutch and Flemish masters used light grounds varying from white to gray, and their example has been followed by the English painters and those of the modern European schools. Research Ground
Guano (from the Peruvian huano meaning dung) is the partially decomposed and dry excrement of sea-birds. Since the 19th century it has been highly prized as a manure, and led to the claims and disputes of the many tiny islands and atolls in the Pacific Ocean (such as the Gilbert Islands, Line Islands etc) as the western countries sought to lay sole claim to the collection of the vast tons of guano deposited on these islands by their bird populations.
The name guano has also been extended to accumulations of a similar kind from land birds, and even from bats in caverns. Owing to the fact that rain washes such deposits away, great accumulations of guano exist principally in hot and dry tropical regions. The most important of all were the deposits on the Chincha Islands off the coast of Peru, which yielded a considerable revenue to the country, but were quite exhausted by 1900. From 1853 to 1872 about 8,000,000 tons were obtained from these islands. The guano which was found there was from 60 to 80 or 100 feet (as much as 30 meters) in thickness, and was entirely due to the droppings, accumulated for many ages, of the innumerable sea-birds which make these islands their resting-place and breeding-ground. Other deposits of less extent have from time to time been found, and Peru remained the chief source of supply, its deposits being worked under the Chilian government.
Guano varies extremely in composition, but it may be roughly divided into nitrogenous and phosphatic. The first of these contains about 21 per cent of ammonia. This is the case with the Peruvian variety, which contains almost all the inorganic matter required by a plant, and that in a highly available form, so that it is looked upon as one of the best of all fertilizing agents for different crops. Its use as a manure was known to the native Peruvians centuries ago, but no attention was paid to the accounts by modern travellers of its wonderful efficacy until Von Humboldt brought some to Europe and had it analysed. It began to be brought to Europe about 1846. It was used raw or in its natural state, but most of the phosphatic guanos (some of which hardly deserve the name of guano) required to be dissolved by sulphuric acid before using. There were also manures known fish guano, prepared from fish or fish refuse, flesh guano, blood guano, etcc. Large quantities of fish guano were made in the United States from the menhaden, the oil being first extracted. Research Guano
In law, a guardian is the custodier of persona incapable of directing themselves, and especially of infants, that is persons under 18 years of age (previously under 21). Guardianship lasts in the case of the young until they have attained the age of an adult, currently eighteen and formerly twenty-one. Prior to 1885 the mother of a child had few rights if the father died, however an act passed in 1885 provided that, if the father died without appointing a guardian, the mother became the sole guardian, and even if a guardian had been appointed the mother was entitled to become a guardian conjointly.
The Guardian is a British broadsheet newspaper tending towards a political bias slightly left of centre and popular among school teachers and those involved in social work. Research Guardian
Gudrun is a celebrated German popular epic belonging to the end of the 12th century, receiving its name from its heroine Gudrun, daughter of King Hettel of Hegelingen. Hettel is defeated by Hartmut, son of King Louis of Normandy, who carries Gudrun off, and on her steadfast refusal to marry him, has her subjected to various kinds of ill treatment, and in particular lets his mother keep her for years engaged in the lowest kinds of drudgery. At last she is released and revenged by her brother and her betrothed, king Herwig of Seeland. The poem also deals with the fortunes of Gudrun's father and mother, grandfather and grandmother, etc, and the scene is partly in North Germany, Denmark, Friesland, partly in Ireland and Normandy. Research Gudrun
The Guelfs and Ghibellines were two great Italian political parties in the 13th and 14th centuries. The names are derived from the Italian Guelfi and Ghibellini, which are corrupted from the German Welfen and Waiblingen. These latter words came to be used as party designations in Germany, in the war between Henry the Proud and Conrad of Hohenstaufen, to whom belonged the estate of Waiblingen in Wurtemberg. About the year 1200 the designations Guelf and Ghibelline came to be employed to denote respectively the Italian patriotic and papal party, and the party which supported the domination of the German emperors in Italy. After the fall of the Hohenstaufen the Ghibellines became the partisans of aristocracy, and the Guelfs the partisans of democracy and liberty; but the designations ultimately denoted mere communal and family feuds, and Dante, originally a Guelf, but subsequently a Ghibelline, asserted that the two parties were the cause of all the miseries of Italy. The contest continued with bitterness for almost 300 years. Corresponding parties appeared in Italy under many different names, as the bianchi and neri (white and black) in Florence, etc. Research Guelfs and Ghibellines
Guignet's Green is a green pigment prepared by heating in a reverberatory furnace a mixture of three parts of boracic acid and one of potasium bichromate, made into a thick paste with water. This colour is quite fixed - it does not alter by light or reagents, and it is quite harmless, so that it forms an excellent substitute for the greens which contain arsenic and copper. Research Guignet's Green
The guillotine is an engine for beheading people at one stroke. It was invented during the Middle Ages, and adopted with improvements by the National Assembly of France during the first revolution on the proposal of a Dr Joseph Guillotine who proposed its use to prevent unnecessary pain, and after whom it is named.
In this apparatus decapitation is effected by means of a steel blade loaded with a mass of lead, and sliding between two upright posts, grooved on their inner sides, the person's neck being confined in a circular opening between two planks, the upper one of which also slides up or down. The condemned is strapped to a board and rapidly moved up so as to place the neck of the condemned within the semi- circle of the lower plank, the other being raised for the purpose. On the right of the table is a large basket or trough of wicker-work for the reception of the body. Under the place where the head rests is a rectangular trough for its reception. The knife is fixed to the cap or lintel on the top of the posts by a claw in the form of a figure eight, the lower part of which opens as the upper- part closes. This claw is acted upon by a lever to which a cord is attached. When the head of the condemned is in position the cord is pulled, and by the action of the lever the knife falls, descending by the grooves of the upright posts and falling upon the neck of the condemned just behind the planks which keep the head in position. The scaffold which is surrounded by an open railing is raised two metres from the ground.
The name guillotine is also given to a type of knife used for cutting paper. Research Guillotine
Guipure is a form of lace with no meshbackground, with the patterns tied with brides or large stitches. The term originally applied to silk-whipped cord or wire used in lace-making. Research Guipure
The Gulag is the central administrative department of the Soviet security service. It was established in 1930 and is responsible for maintaining prisons and forced labour camps. Research Gulag
The Gulf Stream is a well-known oceanic current, so called because it issues from the Gulf of Mexico. It owes its origin to the fact that the westward moving waters of the tropical portion of the Atlantic Ocean, encountering the eastward projection of South America, become divided into two currents, one setting southwards along the Brazilian coast, and the other northward past the mouths of the Amazon and Orinoco, into the Caribbean Sea. It then enters the Gulf of Mexico, and thence emerges through the Channel of Florida as the Gulf Stream. Its course is next to the north and eastwards, in a direction parallel to the coast of the United States, past Cape Hatteras, along the southern edge of the 'great banks' of Nantucket and Newfoundland (between the meridians of 48 and 60 degrees west), after which its course as a distinct current is less obvious.
In the earlier part of its course, especially when rounding the extremity of Florida, the Gulf Stream forms a well-defined current, distinguished by its high temperature and its deep blue or indigo colour. On account of the descent of the Polar or Baffin Bay current along the coast in a direction opposite to that of the Gulf Stream, the water on its inland side is colder than that to the eastward of it. The difference of temperature between the Gulf Stream and this cold current sometimes amounts to 20 or even 30 degrees Fahrenheit
The velocity of the Gulf Stream varies with its course. Within the Florida Channel it attains a mean of 65 miles per day, this sinks to 56 miles off Charleston, becomes 36 miles to 46 off Nautucket, and 28 miles to the south of the Newfoundland Banks; 300 miles to the eastward of Newfoundland its movement is hardly perceptible. At the bottom of the Florida Channel the observed temperature is 34 degrees that of the surface from 80 to 84 degrees Fahrenheit. Research Gulf Stream
Gum is a substance of various properties which exudes spontaneously from the bark of certain trees, such as the plum, the peach, etc; or from incisions made in the bark to facilitate the flow. Gums form non-crystalline rounded drops or tears, the purest varieties being transparent or translucent, of a pale yellow but sometimes of a dark colour.
When dissolved in water gum forms a thick, smooth fluid, with considerable viscosity. Some gums, such as gum-arabic, dissolve in water; others, like tragacanth, are only partially soluble; they are insoluble in alcohol. By being insoluble in alcoholgums are distinguished from resins. They have no odour, and only a very faint taste. The different kinds of gum receive their names from the countries from which they are imported - such as gum-arabic, gum-senegal, Barbary gum, East India gum, etc, and from individual features, as cherry-tree gum, tragacanth, etc. Gum-resins require water and alcohol to dissolve them. Research Gum
Gum-resins are solidified juices obtained from plants. They contain a gum, which is soluble in water, and a resin, which dissolves in spirit, so that the body usually is nearly quite soluble in dilute alcohol; but there are usually present in addition essential oil, and a variety of impurities. The gum-resins have frequently a strong and characteristic taste and smell. They are solid, opaque, and brittle. The common gum-resins are aloes, ammoniacum, asafoetida, bdellium, galbanum, gamboge, myrrh, olibanum, opoponax, sagapenum, and scammony. Research Gum-Resin
Gunny-bags are bags made of a coarse cloth or sacking manufactured in India of some native fibre, chiefly jute. They are extensively used in India in packing rice, sago, spices, etc, for export, and formerly in America for bales of cotton. Research Gunny-Bag
The Gunpowder Plot was a terrorist conspiracy formed in England in 1604, the second year of the reign of James I, by some Roman Catholics, to blow up the King and parliament in revenge for the severities against their religion that they had suffered by the government. The time ultimately fixed for the execution of the plot was the 5th of November, 1605, when parliament was to be opened by the king in person. The plot originated with Robert Catesby, Thomas Winter, and John Wright, and was at once made known to Guy Fawkes, a zealous Catholic, who had served in the Spanish army in Flanders, and to Thomas Percy, a relation of the Earl of Northumberland. These five were the original conspirators, but the plot was subsequently communicated to Sir Everard Digby, Ambrose Rookwood, Francis Tresham, Thomas Keyes, Christopher Wright (a brother of John), and to some Jesuit fathers and others.
The conspirators took a house next to the Parliament House, and their original plan was by digging under this house to undermine the House of Parliament. They latterly discovered, however, that there was a cellar right under the chamber of parliament, which was occupied by a coal-dealer. They at once hired this cellar, and filled it with gunpowder, faggots, and billets. The plot was discovered by means of a letter sent to Lord Mounteagle, a Catholic peer in favour with the court, who laid it before the secretary of state, Cecil. The letter was a warning couched in mysterious terms, not to be present at the approaching meeting of parliament. Cecil showed it to some of the council, and did nothing until the return of the king from a hunting party. On hearing the letter James at once worked out its meaning, and declared that it referred to gunpowder. This led to investigation and to the arrest of Fawkes in the cellar, where a hogshead and thirty-six barrels of gunpowder were discovered.
It generally thought that Tresham, the reputed author of the letter to Lord Mounteagle, had previously informed bis lordship of the plot, and that the sending and publication of the letter were merely intended as blinds. It seems also that Cecil, knowing the king's vanity, wanted to make him the discoverer of the plot.
Guy Fawkes was arrested at the scene, tortured and revealed the names of his co-conspirators, Catesby, Percy, and the two Wrights were killed while defending Holbeach House, in which they had taken refuge, against the sheriff. Sir Everard Digby was tried and executed at Northampton, Tresham died in prison., Rookwood, Winter, and others were arrested, confessions extracted under torture, and subsequently condemned at Westminster on the 27th of January 1606, and executed on the 30th and 31st.
There is serious doubt about the plot - it was for example too conveniently discovered in the nick of time, and the accused were not tried, but all confessed under torture, and it has been suggested that the entire plot was fabricated by the English authorities to discredit the catholic church and the Pope. Certainly following the alleged plot, persecution of the Catholics within Britain not only continued, but also increased in intensity. Research Gunpowder Plot
Gunter's Chain was the chain formerly in common use for measuring land. It was so called from its inventor, Edmund Gunter. Its length was 66 feet, or 22 yards, or 4 poles of 5.5 yards each; and it was divided into 100 links of 7.92 inches each. 100,000 square links made 1 acre. Research Gunter's Chain
Gunter's Scale is a scale having various lines upon it, formerly of great use in working problems in navigation. This scale was usually 2 feet long and about 1.5 inches broad. On the one side were the natural lines, and on the other the artificial or logarithmic ones. Research Gunter's Scale
Gurjun is a thin balsam or oil, derived from trees of the genus Dipterocarpus, in Burma and the Far East. It was used for mixing paints, preserving wood from the attacks of white ants, and also medicinally. Research Gurjun
A guttural (from Latin guttur, the throat), is a sound produced chiefly by the back parts of the cavity of the mouth, as the German and the Scotch ch. The letters k and g in English may be classed as gutturals. Research Guttural
Guy of Warwick is an old English metrical romance, whose hero is an Anglo-Danish knight said to have been the son of Siward, baron of Walllingford, to have become Earl of Warwick, and to have slain in single combat the Danishgiant Colbrand, the Dun-Cow of Dunsmore, and the dragon of Northumberland, and many other wonderful feats. He is said ultimately to have become a hermit in Warwick. Research Guy of Warwick
Gymnasium was a term applied in Germany to a class of schools corresponding pretty nearly to the grammar-schools and secondary schools of Britain. Formerly in the gymnasia Latin and Greek were the chief subjects taught but by the start of the 20th century a more practical bent was given to the course of instruction in these institutions, though the real-schools, as they were called, were the institutions specially establislied for high-class education in such branches as mathematics and physical science, modern languages, etc. The gymnasia were the feeders of the universities. The last or exit-examination, to show whether the pupils were fit to enter the university, was very severe, and included not only Latin and Greek, but also mathematics, physics, history, etc, and at least one foreign language (French or English). Research Gymnasium
Gyromancy was a form of divination originating in the 16th century involving foretelling the future from the point at which a person walking around in a circle fell down from dizziness. Research Gyromancy
The Probert Encyclopaedia was designed, edited and programed by
Matt and Leela Probert
Abbreviations
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