H is the eighth letter of the English alphabet, often called the aspirate, as being a mereaspiration or breathing, though not the only aspirated letter in English. The sound that distinctively belongs to it is that which it has at the beginning of a syllable before a vowel, as in hard, heavy. It is very commonly joined to other consonants to represent sounds for which there are no special letters in the alphabet, as in the digraphs ch, sh, th (child, ship, thin, this), or in other consonantal combinations of various origins and values, as in the words enough (gh=-f), plough (gh silent), philosophy (ph=-f), rhetoric (h silent), etc. Ch is common in words taken from the Greek, but in this case it generally has the k sound, as in chemistry, chyle, logomachy, etc. Research H
In law, habeas corpus is a writ ordering a person to be brought before a court or judge. The term is particularly applied to a writ so issued so that the court may ascertain whether the person's detention is lawful. From the time of the Magna Charta imprisonment at the discretion of any person has been unlawful in England, but for long the royal prerogative was so indefinite and the power of the crown so great that persons were frequently detained in custody at the discretion of the crown. It was not until the 17th century that the Habeas Corpus Act, passed in 1679 provided the great remedy for the violation of personal liberty by the writ of habeas corpus ad subjiciendum (that you have the body to answer).
The provisions of the act may be stated generally thus : 1. That on complaint or request in writing, by, or on behalf of, any person committed and charged with any crime (unless treason, felony, etc, expressed in the warrant), the lord-chancellor, or any of the judges shall award a habeas corpus for such prisoner, and shall discharge the party, if bailable, upon security being given to appear and answer to the accusation. 2. The writ shall be returned, and the prisoner brought up within a limited time, not exceeding twenty days. 3. No person once delivered by habeas corpus shall be recommitted for the same offence. 4. Every person committed for treason or felony may insist on being tried at the next assizes, or admitted to bail, and if not tried at the second assizes or sessions, he shall be discharged from the imprisonment. The writ may be applied for by persons confined in any part of England, or Jersey and Guernsey. As the writ originally had to do solely with crimes, the statute 56 George III. cap. c. was passed, which extended the writ to other than criminal cases.
The result was that no person could be illegally confined in England for any length of time, since some friend could always apply for a habeas corpus, which, on a good prima facie case, would be issued. If the party was confined under recognized authority, as a child by a parent, this fact had to be stated.
In times of great political excitement, and suspected treasonable conspiracies, the operation of the Habeas Corpus Act has been occasionally suspended, and during the early 21st century under the pretext of 'combatting terrorism' exceptions made to it. But such suspension does not enable any one to imprison without cause or valid pretext for so doing. It only prevents persons who are committed from being bailed, tried, or discharged during the suspension, leaving to the committing magistrate all the responsibility attending on illegal imprisonment.
In Scotland similar protection of the liberty of the subject was secured by the Wrongous Imprisonment Act of 1701. The English statute was copied in the United States without essential change.
In the United States habeas corpus was suspended on July the 5th, 1861. Attorney-GeneralBates gave an opinion in favour of the President's power to declare martial law and suspend the writ of habeas corpus. A special session of Congress approved this opinion. Thereafter many arbitrary arrests were made, arousing much indignation. On September the 24th, 1862, the suspension was made general by the President so far as it might affect persons arrested by military authority for disloyal practices. An act of Congress, on March the 3rd, 1863, again authorized the suspension of the writ by the President in cases of prisoners of war, deserters, those resisting drafts and offenders against the military or naval service. The arrest of Vallandigham, in Ohio, and of Milligan, in Indiana, caused great excitement. The case of the latter being brought before the Supreme Court of the Union, that body decided that Congress could not give to military commissions the power of trial and conviction, and that the suspension of the privilege of habeas corpus did not suspend the writ itself. In the case of the Ku-Klux rebellions there was a brief suspension of habeas corpus in 1871. Research Habeas Corpus
Habit and Repute, in Scotch law, was an expression applied to denote something so notorious that it was taken without further proof to be true. Thus, marriage could be established by habit and repute, where the parties cohabited and were recognized by the neighbours as man and wife. Also if a person was by habit and repute a thief, that is, a notorious thief, the punishment inflicted was heavier. Research Habit and Repute
The Habitual Criminals Act was passed in 1869 granting powers to the police to apprehend habitual criminals on suspicion. The objective being to be more effective in the prevention of crime. This statute was, however, repealed two years later and replaced by a more comprehensive act known as the Prevention of Crime Act. Research Habitual Criminals Act
The hacek is a diacritic mark resembling a small 'v' placed over certain letters in order to modify their sounds. The Hacek is particularly used in the Slavonic languages to indicate various forms of palatalarticulation. Research Hacek
In cartography, hachures are the lines which indicate the steepness of gradient of a hill or slope by virtue of how close together they are drawn. Research Hachure
A hackamore is an American bitless bridle with a hard oval noseband. It allows pressure to be applied to the horse's nose by means of the reigns attached just in front of a heavy counterbalancing knot. Research Hackamore
A hackle is a board set with sharp steel spikes for combing or pulling out hemp or flax to dispose the fibres in parallelism and to separate the long and the short threads. Research Hackle
Hackney Coach is the old name for a Hackney Carriage. They originated in London in 1625 when there were twenty of them available for hire. During the 19th century Hackney Coaches gave way to Hackney Cabs, which in turn have evolved into Hackney Carriages, now commonly called taxis. Research Hackney Coach
Hades means places of the departed spirit. In Christian terminology it is the place, either heaven or hell, where the spirit awaits the resurrection. Throughout the modern New Testament the word Hades has been mistranslated as 'hell' meaning the inferno, rather than ambiguous correct meaning. Research Hades
Haematoxylin is the colouring matter of logwood, or Haematoxylon campechianum. This colouring matter is a constituent part of all the colours prepared with logwood, and the changes which it undergoes by the action of acids and alkalies render it useful as a reagent to detect their presence. Research Haematoxylin
Hag knots is the term given in the New Forest to tangles in the manes of wild ponies, and so named from the ancient belief that they were used as stirrups by witches (hags). Research Hag Knots
Hajj (or Hadj) is the Muslim pilgrimage to Mecca. which every Muslin, ought to perform once in his life, and after which he is entitled to prefix Hadji to his name. The pilgrimage was made in disguise by Burckhardt in 1814, by Burton in 1853, and by T F Keane in 1878, each of whom published accounts of his journey. Research Hajj
Halacha or Halaka is the Jewish oral or traditional law, as distinguished from the written law laid down in the Scriptures, and like it believed to be of divine origin. It was finally reduced to a written code forming part of the Talmud. Research Halacha
At the close of the American War of Independence it was the first care of Congress to cut down the country's expenses. On April the 26th, 1778, by a majority of one State, half-pay had been voted for life to the officers as a means of keeping the army together. In the four years following five different votes were passed, each annulling the former one. In 1782 it was proposed to remit the whole matter to the States. Finally in 1783, after the appearance of the Newburgh addresses, it was decided to commute the half-pay for life into five years' full pay in one gross sum, certificates to be issued therefore at six percent. This measure was unpopular. Research Half-Pay Question
In law, half-blood is the relationship by being born of the same father, but not of the same mother (consanguinean relationship); or born of the same mother, but not of the same father (uterine relationship). Traditionally in the succession to real or landed property in England, the half-blood relations by the father's sido succeed after the full-blood relations; and next, the half-blood relations by the mother's side. Research Half-blood
The half-way covenant was a concession made on the part of the Church by the New England Synod convened at Northampton in 1657, mainly in order to secure a more facile working in relation to the State. The requirements for church membership were relaxed in order that certain civil privileges might be obtained by those who had neither the ability nor willingness to make profession of religious experience. Such persons were admitted on grounds of baptism, but were still denied the lord's Supper. This half-way covenant aroused much controversy, and was later opposed by Jonathan Edwards and his followers. Research Half-way Covenant
Under the provisions of the fisheries treaty of 1871 between Great Britain and the United States, the fishermen of the United States were allowed to take fish along the shores of Canada and Newfoundland. The inhabitants of these States complained, and accordingly a, commission of representatives from each country met at Halifax, Nova Scotia, in 1877, to determine the amount of compensation to be paid by the United States for the fishing privileges accorded them. The sum of $5,500,000 was awarded to Great Britain. Research Halifax Commission
A hallmark is an official mark stamped on British gold, silver, and (from 1913) platinum.
Hallmarking was instituted in 1327 by the royal charter of London Goldsmiths so as to prevent fraud. After 1363, personal marks of identification were added. Today, tests of metal content are carried out at authorised assay offices in London, Birmingham, Sheffield, and Edinburgh; each assay office has its distinguishing mark, to which is added a maker's mark, date letter, and mark guaranteeing standard. Research Hallmark
A hamada is a rocky area of desert which has been swept clean of sand, dust and the like by the wind. The term is most usually applied to areas of the Sahara desert. Research Hamada
The Hamiltonian System is a method for learning languages developed by James Hamilton in the 19th century. The basic principle is that words are learned on a word-for-word translation basis before tacklinggrammar. Research Hamiltonian System
Hamlet, prince of Denmark, IS the hero of Shakespeare's famous tragedy. The story is founded on an old tradition, related, amongst others, by Saxo-Grammaticus, of a Danish prince, Hamlet, who lived about 500 BC, but essentially altered in details and conclusion. Research Hamlet
The Hamlet Case of 1850 was the first recorded action under the American Fugitive Slave Act of 1850. Hamlet, a free negro (Black man) with a family, was arrested in New York by a Deputy US Marshal as a fugitive slave of Mary Brown, of Baltimore, and after a hasty examination surrendered in accordance with the law. Indignation was aroused and he was finally redeemed. Research Hamlet Case
A hammer-cloth was a cloth sometimes used to cover the box-seat of a private carriage. It usually bore the coat of arms of the owner of the carriage. Research Hammer-Cloth
A hammock is a swinging bed, apparently of West Indian origin. Suspended sleeping nets, made of grasses or fibre, were in common use among the Caribs at the time of the discovery of America by Columbus, the concept being adopted by Spanish sailors in Columbus' expeditions.
The classic British hammock was a rectangular piece of cloth or netting about 6 feet long and 4 feet wide, gathered together at the two ends and slung horizontally. Hammocks were in common use on ships of war. Research Hammock
The Hampden Clubs were clubs formed throughout Britain in 1816 nominally to advocate reform. A Committee drawn from both Houses of Parliament was appointed to inquire into their working, and reported, on February 9, 1817, that their object was revolution. Research Hampden Clubs
The Hampton Court Conference was a conference which took place in 1604 at Hampton Court under the presidency of James I between the representatives of the Episcopalian and Puritan parties in the church. The proceedings consisted largely of browbeating of the Puritan members and theological dogmatizing on the part of the king himself. A few slight alterations were made in the Common Prayer Book, and it was determined that a new version of the Bible should be undertaken. This, the Authorized Version, appeared in 1611. Research Hampton Court Conference
The hand was an English unit of measurement applied to horses and silk. One
hand being four inches applied to horses or 840 yards of silk. Research Hand
Handcuffs are an instrument formed of two metal rings connected by a short chain or fixed on a hinge on the ends of a very short metal bar, which, being locked over the wrists of a malefactor, prevents them from using their hands. Research Handcuffs
Handfasting is a provisional or temporary marriage signified by joining hands. It was quite common in Scotland and is described by Sir Walter Scott how Bordermen handfasted their mates for a year and a day before either choosing another partner, or asking the priest to marry them. Research Handfasting
Hands is the unit of measurement of labourers or sailors, thus a ship crewed by 100 sailors carries 100 hands. The phrase all hands on deck refers to all the staff. Research Hands
Hansard was a firm of printers in London, which long printed the parliamentary debates and papers. The founder of the business was Luke Hansard, who, in 1800, became printer to the House of Commons. The reports of speeches printed were extracted from the London newspapers, but were generally sent to the speakers for revision. The name is still retained for the reports now otherwise furnished. Research Hansard
Hanse-pot was an old term for an ornamental pot or vase. The term was in use during the 16th century, and seems to have been applied to lavish, expensive pots. Research Hanse-Pot
The Hansom-cab was a two-wheeled horse-drawn hackney-carriage or cabriolet used in the cities and large towns of Britain, and named after the inventor. It held two persons besides the driver, who sat on an elevated seat behind the body of the carriage, the reins being brought over the top. Research Hansom-Cab
Hanswurst is the name of a standing comic character on the older German stage, corresponding in its grotesque traits and mirth-making qualities to the English clown or Italian harlequin. The name is equivalent to the Jack Pudding of England. Research Hanswurst
Hara-Kiri is a form of ritualistic suicide in which the participant disembowels them self by cutting across the stomach and then upwards, using a special knife. It was popular among the military class in feudalJapan. Research Hara-Kiri
Hard selling is aggressive advertising or salesmanship. In sales, a typical hard sell technique, as utilised by among other companies Kirbyvacuum cleaners, Zenith windows and doors, and Craftmatic adjustable beds, is to exhaust a potential customer into agreeing to buy. A standard soft sale might involve simply asking the potential customer if they should like to purchase a product. In a hard sell, often a potential customer will be presented with an arduous demonstration and talk, perhaps lasting for as much as three hours at the end of which the customer is so exhausted by the experience they can no longer rationalise and will sign almost anything to end their ordeal. During a hard sell presentation, if the potential customer tries to terminate the presentation is usual for the salesman to employ guilt as a weapon, asking the customer if he or she might telephone his boss to explain why he has failed to make the sale, often then passing the telephone to the potential to receive more sales pitch from the 'manager'. Hard sells are employed in the second-hand car industry to sell worthless warranties and expensive credit agreements. Customers are deliberately kept waiting for hours while 'the paperwork is arranged' and then hurriedly asked to sign various agreements, the exhausted customer by then is too tired and fed up to carefully check what they are signing. Research Hard Sell
A harem or hareem (an Arbic word meaning the prohibited) is a term used to signify the women's apartments in a household establishment, forbidden to every man except the husband and near relations. The women of the 19th century harems consisted simply of a wife and her attendants, or there could be several wives and an indefinite number of concubines or female slaves, with black eunuchs, etc. The greatest harem during the 19th century was that of the Sultan of Turkey. The women of the imperial harem were all slaves, generally Circassians or Georgians. Their life was spent in bathing, dressing, walking in the gardens, witnessing the voluptuous dances performed by their slaves, etc. The women of other Turks enjoyed the society of their friends at the baths or in each other's houses, and appeared in public accompanied by slaves and eunuchs; but the women of the sultan's harem had none of these privileges. Research Harem
Harlequin is a character of the Italian comedy introduced on the stage of other countries. On the Italian stage he is a comic character, full of drolleries, tricks, and knaveries, and somewhat resembles the English clown. The traditional harlequin of British pantomimes is quite different. He is supposed to be the lover of the columbine, and possesses a wonderworking wand, with which he protects his mistress against the clown and pantaloon, who pursue and endeavour to capture her, until the pursuit is brought to a termination by a good fairy. The harlequin wears a tight dress of bright colours, and glittering with spangles. Research Harlequin
The Harmony of the Spheres was an hypothesis of Pythagoras and his school, according to which the motions of the heavenly bodies produced a music imperceptible by the ears of mortals. He supposed these motions to conform to certain fixed laws, which could be expressed in numbers corresponding to the numbers which give the harmony of sounds. Research Harmony of the Spheres
The Harmsworth Encyclopaedia ('Everybody's book of reference') was published c1910 by The Amalgamated Press Limited and Thomas Nelson and Sons, London in forty fortnightly parts which could then be bound into eight volumes. It was contributed to by over 500 contributors including; John Adams, Professor of Education in the University of London, Professor Bastable of Dublin University and Alfred William Pollard, Assistant Librarian at the British Museum. Research Harmsworth Encyclopaedia
Harmsworth's Universal Encyclopedia was an encyclopaedia edited by J A Hammerton, published by The Amalgamated Press Limited in late 1922 or early 1923, in nine volumes of a total of 8104 pages and 23,500 illustrations including colour plates. At least two editions were published, an early edition in a brown leather binding and a later, more common edition, in a red board binding with corrections. Research Harmsworth's Universal Encyclopedia
In July, 1859, John Brown settled near Harper's Ferry, Virginia and began, with the aid of some Kansas associates, the forcible liberation of slaves. On October the 17th he seized, with seventeen whites and five negroes, the United States arsenal at Harper's Ferry, and spent the next eighteen hours in freeing slaves, cutting telegraph wires, preparing defences and making prisoners of fifty white men. On October the 18th, 1500 militia and marines arrived. They surrounded the armoury engine house, burst open the door and captured John Brown, three other whites and half a dozen negroes. Eight of the insurgents were killed. John Brown was taken to Charlestown, Virginia., and there hanged, on December the 2nd, 1859. Research Harper's Ferry Insurgency
In America in 1827 a high tariff bill, known as the Woollen Bill, was introduced into Congress by Clay and his adherents. It passed the House, but was defeated in the Senate by the casting vote of the Vice-President. Accordingly the protectionist faction, in 1828, called a convention at Harrisburg. The delegates were chiefly from New England and the Middle States. The Harrisburg convention presented the cause of protection to the people, and decided to seek an increased duty, not only on woollens, but on other specified articles of manufacture. This resulted in the passage of the high tariff bill of 1828. Research Harrisburg Convention
The Hartford Convention met at Hartford, Connecticut on December the 15th, 1814, and adjourned on January the 5th, 1815. The convention consisted of delegates from Massachusetts, Connecticut and Rhode Island and was the outgrowth of the opposition of the New England Federalists to the war with Great Britain which was then in progress and which was especially injurious to the commercial interests of New England. The New England States strongly denounced the policy of the Democratic administration in the conduct of the war, especially in respect to forcible drafts. The convention was held in secret and a report was falsely circulated that it looked toward a dissolution of the Union. The general aim of the convention seems to have been to propose certain reforms in the direction of States' rights. Its proceedings brought upon the New England Federalists great odium. Research Hartford Convention
Harvard College is a famous University in Cambridge, Massachusetts. It was founded by the general court at Boston on the 28th October 1636, and chartered in 1650 by the General Court. Harvard derived its name from John Harvard, the clergyman formerly of Emmanuel College, Cambridge who bequeathed to it his library and a sum of money in 1638.
Harvard is the oldest college in the United States. Its first class, consisting of nine, was graduated in 1642. It received State aid, in addition to private benefactions, until 1814, but its official connection with the commonwealth continued until 1865, after which time the control of the university was vested in its alumni. Besides its academic department it has schools of theology, law, medicine, science and dental surgery, founded respectively in 1819, 1817, 1782, 1848 and 1868. Research Harvard College
The Hats and Caps were names given to two political parties in Sweden during 1737 to 1772. The Hats under Tessin came into power in 1738, and remained supreme for twenty-seven years. The Caps succeeded them in 1766, were overthrown in 1769, but recovered power in 1771. Both parties were abolished by Gustavus III. Research Hats and Caps
Properly a haversack is a bag used for carrying oats. The term haversack was mainly used to describe the small canvas bag in which soldiers carried their rations and personal effects. Research Haversack
The Haymarket Massacre was an Anarchist riot in Chicago, USA. The troubles originated in labour troubles which culminated in an open-air meeting in Haymarket Square, Chicago on May the 4th, 1886. Violent speeches were made by the Anarchists Spies, Parsons and Fielden. A bomb was thrown among the police, causing great loss of life. Spies, Parsons, Fischer, Engel, Schwab, Lingg and Neebe were arrested and tried. The first four were hanged on November 11, 1887. Fielden and Schwab were imprisoned for life. Lingg committed suicide. Governor Altgeld, of Illinois, pardoned Fielden and Schwab in 1893. Research Haymarket Massacre
Head is the term applied to the anterior part of the body of an animal when marked off by a difference in size, or by a constriction (neck). A gradual increase of complexity in the structure of the head is observable as we ascend from the lowest to the highest forms of life. In the Protozoa, Infusoria, and Coelenterates nothing that can be regarded as a head is found, and it is not until we ascend to the worms proper, the articulated animals (crustaceans, myriapods, spiders, and insects), the land and fresh-water gasteropods (snails and whelks), and the cuttle-fishes, that a head proper is found.
The cuttle-fishes have a remarkable cartilaginous box, which, like a skull, protects their anterior nervous ganglia and gives support to the muscles. The head of the vertebrated animals presents a regular series of increasing complexity from the lancelet upwards, and as the anterior nervous mass enlarges, and its ganglia increase in complexity, so do the anterior vertebra change their character; as the brain becomes specialized, so does the brain-case or skull, attaining its highest development in man.
In man, and in the higher vertebrates, the head consists of an upper chamber, lodging the brain, the eyes, and other sense organs, and a lower, lodging the first portion of the alimentarycanal. In proportion as the vertebrates become developed, the brain increases in size, and its position advances anteriorly, until, in man, it comes to overhang the face.
Health Acts (Public) are acts passed in order to secure the good sanitary condition of any country or district. The first British Public Health Act was passed in 1848, and was followed by others, a comprehensive general act being the Public Health Act (1875), which was subsequently amended and extended. Through history there have been separate legislation for London, Scotland, and Ireland. The acts contained provisions respecting sewers, water supply, unsound food, contagious diseases, etc, and formed the foundations of modern legislation and regulation. Research Health Acts
The Health and Safety Commission is a commission appointed by the Secretary of State for Employment to look after the health, safety, and welfare of people at work; to protect the public from risks arising from work activities; and to control the use and storage of explosives and other dangerous substances. It is composed of representatives from trade unions, employers, and local authorities with a full-time chairman. The Health and Safety Executive is a statutory body that advises the Commission and carries out its policies through 20 area offices. It includes HMFactory Inspectorate and a Medical Division, which itself includes the Employment Medical Advisory Service. Research Health and Safety Commission
Hecatomb was an ancient sacrifice of a hundred oxen, particularly observed by the Lacedaemonians when they possessed a hundred cities. The sacrifice was subsequently reduced to twenty-three oxen and goats and lambs were substituted. Research Hecatomb
A hedge is a fence formed of living trees or shrubs. Hedges are often composed of one or more of the following: Hawthorn, crab, blackthorn, holly, privet, beech, hornbeam, maple, barberry, furze, broom, alder, poplar, willow, yew, box, arborvitae, sweet-briar, etc. Although superior to dry-stone walls, they take up much room, and exhaust the soil to some extent. Hedges are probably more common in England than in any other country, though they were not very common in England until the close of the seventeenth century. Research Hedge
The Hegelian dialectic is an interpretive method developed by the German philosopher Georg Hegel, in which the contradiction between a proposition (thesis) and its antithesis is resolved at a higher level of truth (synthesis). Research Hegelian Dialectic
The Heidelberg Catechism was a religious catechism first published at Heidelberg in 1563, drawn out by Zechariah Ursinus for the use of the Reformed Church, and published in the Palatinate. It was received beyond this limit, was approved by the Synod of Dort, and was the model on which the Westminster Assembly framed the Shorter Catechism. Research Heidelberg Catechism
An heir-apparent is someone who 'are such whose right of inheritance is indeafsible provided they outlive the ancestor; as the eldest son, who must be heir to the father when ever he happens to die'. Blackstone. That is, someone whose right of inheritance cannot be superseded by the birth of another, unlike an heir-presumptive whose right of inheritance can be superseded by the birth of another. Research Heir-Apparent
Heir-presumptive is one who, if the ancestor should die immediately, would, under existing circumstances, be the heir, but whose right of inheritance may be defeated by some nearer heir being born, as an only daughter, who is displaced by the birth of a son. Research Heir-Presumptive
In English law, heirloom means some personal chattel which goes by special custom to the heir-at-law, together with the inheritance. The term is often applied to the case where certain chattels, such as pictures, etc, are directed by will to follow along with some mansion or estate. Research Heirloom
Heliograph, or heliostat is the name given to various contrivances for reflecting the sun's light either temporarily or continuously to an observer at a distance. The simplest heliostat is a mirror hung up at a distant station so as to reflect a flash to the observer whose station may be many miles from it. This mirror is generally so adjusted that the flash occurs exactly at some prearranged hour, and by being in readiness the observer can get an observation with precision as regards time. Some heliostats are visible for 80 miles. By being fitted with an adjustment of clock-work, the mirror can be made to revolve with the sun, and so to reflect a beam of sunlight steadily in one direction, being then called also heliotrope. The heliostat has been used for signalling in war. Research Heliograph
Heliogravure or photogravure is a former photo-mechanical printing process. A photograph of any object, as a painting, etc, was taken, and from the negative so obtained a positive print was made on gelatinized paper. This print was transferred upon a highly polished copper plate, and a solution of terchloride of iron was poured upon it, which penetrated through the gelatine and etched the picture upon the copper. The final result was the production of a photo-etched copper-plate, from which a large number of impressions could be taken. Research Heliogravure
A hemisphere is half a sphere, especially one of the halves into which the earth may be supposed to be divided. It is common to speak of the Eastern Hemisphere and the Western Hemisphere, the former, also called the Old World, comprising Europe, Asia, Africa, Australia, etc; the latter, North and South America, etc. The boundary between the two is quite arbitrary, and a more natural division of the earth is into the northern and the southern hemisphere, the equator forming the dividing line. Research Hemisphere
Hening's Statutes was the first complete collection ever published of the laws of any colony and State, with inclusion of those obsolete and repealed. Hening's 'Statutes at Large of Virginia' was published, beginning in 1809, by W W Hening, largely at the instance of President Jefferson. It's thirteen volumes are of great value as a source of history. Research Hening's Statutes
Hepburn vs Griswold was one of the 'legal-tender cases' in the US Supreme Court, decided 1864. In 1860 Mrs. Hepburn promised to pay Griswold on February 20th, 1862, $11,250, legal tender at that time (1860) being gold and silver only. In 1862, during the American Civil War, the United States issued $150,000,000 of its own notes to be received as lawful money in payment of public and private debts within the United States. Mrs. Hepburn's note being overdue, suit was brought by Griswold in the Court of Chancery of Kentucky in 1864. Mrs. Hepburn tendered United States notes in payment, which were refused, though the court declared the debt absolved. The Court of Appeals reversed this judgment, and, it being brought to the US Supreme Court, that body confirmed the judgment of the Court of Appeals of Kentucky, on the ground that the Act of 1862 was not intended to impair contracts made prior to its passage. This decision was reversed in Knox vs Lee and Julliard vs Greenman. Research Hepburn Vs. Griswold
The Heptarchia Mystica was a book written by the Elizabethan astrologer and mysticJohn Dee in 1582. He described the work as documenting the divine laws of creation itself. The book notes supposed appearances of various angels and holy spirits to John Dee, and the information they passed on to him regarding the laws of creation and the universe, including the names and seals of numerous angels and divine spirits, the days of the week they governed and the human actions controlled by them. Research Heptarchia Mystica
The Herald Of Freedom was the first newspaper of Kansas, USA. The Herald Of Freedom was first issued on October 21st 1854 at Wakarusa, Kansas, but was printed in Pennsylvania. In 1855 the Herald Of Freedom was established at Lawrence but was suspended for a while following destruction of the newspaper's office by a fire and in 1859 was finally suspended. Research Herald Of Freedom
An herbarium, or Hortus Siccus is , a collection of dried plants systematically arranged. Herbariums were popular among the Victorians, and a Victorian text describes the process for collecting specimens thus:
'The specimens should be collected in dry weather, and carried home in a japanned tin-box or vasculum, a small pocket-box being desirable, however, for mosses and small plants. Very delicate specimens should be at once placed in a small field-book of unsized blotting-paper carried tightly strapped between suitable boards, At home they are carefully arranged upon bibulous paper, and pressed between smoothly planed deal boards either by putting weights upon the boards or by using a screw-press. The paper is changed every day or two, as they are found to part with their moisture more or less freely.
Succulent plants (such as stone-crops) should be killed by immersion in boiling water, and left for some time to drain, before pressing. If the stem be thick and woody, or if the flower be thick and globular, as in the thistle, one half may be cut away without depriving it of its character. When the process of desiccation has been completed specimens are fastened upon stiff paper with a mixture of gum-tragacanth and gum-arabic, or thin glue, or with slips of gummed paper, or a needle and thread. To preserve the specimens from the ravages of insects, camphor should be placed in the cabinet and frequently renewed.' Research Herbarium
In law, hereditaments are any species of property that may descend to an heir. Corporeal hereditaments consist of material and tangible possessions, incorporeal hereditaments of rights and privileges not themselves tangible, though conferring claims on tangible possessions. Research Hereditaments
Heredity is the transmission from parent to offspring of physical and intellectual characters. This has been at all times believed in, but it was only in Victorian times that the conviction was, for the first time, in the hands of Darwin, Herbert Spencer, and Wallace, been methodized so as to embody an important zoological doctrine. The Victorian view of evolution in biology rested upon the belief that acquired peculiarities, or differences which may arise between parent and offspring, could be transmitted with some probability of permanence, especially if the variation presented by the young was determined by external conditions, or if it was such as to adapt the possessor more thoroughly to the conditions under which it is placed. On the other hand, while variations may be thus permanently transmitted by heredity, yet this very tendency of the young to repeat the characters of the parent is also a check on variability, or the tendency of structure and attributes to change with the environment. It may be noted that while the strong tendency to hereditary transmission works in the majority of cases so as to perpetuate those most fitted to survive, it secures the same result in other cases by a converse action. The descent of disease in families tends ultimately to purify the race by accumulating incapacities which end in the extinction of the enfeebled strain. The discovery of genetics in the 20th century built upon the earlier theories of heredity, and explained, to a degree, the transport of the passing on of the characteristics. Research Heredity
A heretic is one who embraces a heresy, that is, one who holds some theological doctrine which conflicts with the beliefs of the Catholic or universal church, but who, at the same time, calls himself a Christian.
Many of the early Christians preserved their Jewish or Greek philosophical notions, and mingled them with the doctrines of Christianity. Even in the time of the apostles we find traces of the Gnostics, and subsequently a great variety of heretical sects or sectaries arose. Among the chief may be mentioned the Manichaeans, Sabellians, Arians, Apollinarians, Nestorians, Monophysites, Pelagians, Monothelites, Paulicians, etc. Among religionists stigmatized as heretics in later times by the Roman Catholic Church, were the Waldenses, the Wicliffites, Hussites, Lutherans, and all Protestant sects and churches.
Before Christianity was made the religion of the Roman state, nothing but excommunication was inflicted upon the heretic; but severe laws were passed soon after the conversion of the emperors. The code of Justinian contains many ordinances against heretics, and the canon law made it a duty to denounce them, under pain of excommunication. As early as 385 Priscillian was condemned to death as a heretic by the Spanish bishops at the Council of Treves; but the persecutions of heretics, properly so called, began in the pontificate of Gregory VII, in the llth century. Spain, Italy, and France, from the 13th to the 16th century, suffered much from these persecutions, but the states of Germany showed greater moderation. In England the burning of heretics was practised before 1200, and long continued. Heresy is now left entirely to the cognizance of the ecclesiastical courts. Research Heretic
In English law, a heriot is a tribute or fine, as the best beast or other chattel, payable to the lord of the fee on the decease of the owner, landholder, or vassal. Research Heriot
Heritable-Jurisdiction were grants of criminal jurisdiction formerly bestowed on great families by the Scottish crown, with a view to expedite the administration of justice. Possessors of these jurisdictions could within their domain fine, scourge, imprison, and even in some cases put to death without interference of the common law. They were abolished after the rebellion of 1745. Research Heritable-Jurisdiction
A herse or hearse was oriiginally a framework whereon lighted candles were placed at the obsequies of distinguished persons. The funeral herse of the middle ages was a temporary canopy
covered with wax-lights, and set up in the church; the coffin was placed under the herse during the funeral ceremonies. Sometimes it was a very elaborate structure. The name has been transferred to the modern carriage for bearing a dead body to the grave. Research Herse
The Hesketh is a range of hand-made British motorcycles first developed in 1980 at the estate of Lord Hesketh, a company being formed in 1981 to produce the motorcycles, this company failed in its first year and Lord Hesketh stepped in and in 1982 a new company was formed from the engineers and employees of the old company and the company now trades as Broom Development Engineering, based in Northamptonshire.
The Hesketh range of motorcycles are all based around an air cooled 90 degree Vee-twin engine (in 2009 this was 1100 cc (earlier engines were a little smaller at 1000cc) and a five speed gearbox. A 1200 cc engine was also later produced, but all the engines are fundamentally the same. Research Hesketh
The Hesketh Vortan is a very limited edition hand-made British motorcycle produced to customer orders by Broom Development Engineering. The Hesketh Vortan is based upon the HeskethVulcan, but each individual bike is hand tailored to the desires of the buyer. Research Hesketh Vortan
The Hesketh Vulcan is a British, hand-made sports-tourer motorbike powered by a 1200 cc engine providing a top speed of about 120 mph and a fuel consumption of 50 mpg. The Hesketh Vulcan was first produced in 2006. Research Hesketh Vulcan
A hexameter is a verse of six feet, the heroic or epic measure of the Greeks and Romans. The sixth foot is always a spondee (two long syllables) or a trochee (a long and a short). The five first may be all dactyls (two short syllables and one long), or all spondees, or a mixture of both. The scheme of this verse then is with all the varieties which the mingling of the two kinds of feet affords. In modern poetry the hexameter has been frequently used.
In English hexameters accent is almost entirely substituted for length, and trochees generally take the place of spondees. Longfellow in his Evangeline, Kingsley in his Andromeda, and Clough in his Bothie adopted this form of verse. The following lines are specimens of dough's English hexameters: 0 let us
try, he
answered, the waters them
selves will sup
port us,
Yea very
ripples and
waves will
form to a
boat under neath us. Research Hexameter
A hexapla is a collection of the Holy Scriptures in six languages. The term is applied particularly to the combination of six versions published by Origen, containing the Hebrew text with a transcript of it in Greek characters, the Septuagint, and three other versions, those, namely, of Aquila, Symmachus, and Theodotion. It is only extant in fragments. Research Hexapla
The Hibbert Lectures were a course of lectures founded by Robert Hibbert in 1847 for the promotion of comprehensive learning and thorough research in relation to religion wholly apart from the interest of any particular church or system. The first course was given at Westminster in 1878 by Professor Max Muller, 'On the Origin and Growth of Religion, as illustrated by the Religions of India.' Subsequent lecturers were given by Renouf, Ernest Renan, Rhys Davids, Kuenen, Pfleiderer, Sayce, etc. Research Hibbert Lectures
The Hickey Plot was a conspiracy in 1776 to assassinate General George Washington at New York. Thomas Hickey, one of the general's life guards, was the ringleader. He was hanged in June, 1776, David Matthews, mayor of New York, was implicated, and Governor Tryon was suspected. Matthews was imprisoned. Research Hickey Plot
A hickory-broom is a type of broom, once popular in America, comprised of a thick hickory-wood handle which is shaved down, the long thin shavings still attached at one end of the stick being bent over and bound into a besom head. Research Hickory-Broom
Hiera Picra or 'Holy Bitter' is a warm cathartic composed of aloes and canellabark made into a powder and mixed with honey. It was a favourite in domestic medicine and veterinary practice during the Victorian period and beyond. Research Hiera Picra
Properly, a hierarchy (from the Greek hieros, sacred, and arche, government), is a sacred government, sometimes the church, sometimes the rule which the ecclesiastical governing body exercised as at once priests and civil magistrates. In the former sense the hierarchy arose with the establishment of the Christian church as an independent society. In the middle ages the papal hierarchy gathered great strength, and the pope became a spiritual monarch, ruling western Christendom with power but feebly limited by princes and councils, A reactionary movement began in the 14th century, and the general tendency of subsequent events has always been to make the civil and hierarchical power more and more independent of each other. The term hierarchy as used to denote tlie governing and ministering body in the church, according to its several gradations, can strictly be applied only to those churches which are ruled by bishops, such as the Roman Catholic Church and the Anglican Church, which also holds the theory of a hierarchical gradation of rank and authority. Both these churches comprise the three orders of bishops, priests, and deacons.
In popular parlance, a hierarchy is a body of people, animals, or things ranked in grades, orders, or classes one above the other, this ranking usually being with respect to authority or dominance, thus in a tribe or pack of animals with a hierarchy, the pack leader is in charge, with other dominant individuals wielding authority over lesser or younger individuals. Research Hierarchy
Hieratic Writing (so called from the Greek hieratikos meaning sacred), was the mode of writing used by the Egyptian priests in their records. Research Hieratic Writing
Hieroglyphics (so called from the Greek hieros, sacred, and glypho, I engrave), is a term originally applied to the inscriptions sculptured on buildings in Egypt, in the belief that the writing was confined to sacred subjects, and legible only to the priests. The term has also been applied to picture-writing in general, such as that of the Mexicans and the still ruder pictures of the North American Indians.
Three different modes of writing were used by the ancient Egyptians, the Hieroglyphic, the Hieratic, and the Demotic. Pure hieroglyphic writing is the earliest, and consists of figures of material objects from every sphere of nature and art, with certain mathematical and arbitrary symbols. Next was developed the hieratic or priestly writing, the form in which most Egyptian literature is written, and in which the symbols almost cease to be recognizable as figures of objects. Hieratic writings of the third millennium BC are extant. In the demotic or enchorial writing, derived directly from the hieratic, the symbols are still more obscured. The demotic was first used in the 9th century BC, and was chiefly employed in social and commercial intercourse.
Down to the end of the 18th century scholars failed to find a clue to the hieroglyphic writings. In 1799, however, Bouchard, a French captain of engineers, discovered at Rosetta the celebrated stone which afforded European scholars a key to the language and writing of the ancient Egyptians. It contained a trilingual inscription in hieroglyphics, demotic characters, and Greek, which turned out
to be a decree of the priests in honour of Ptolemy V, issued in 195 BC. The last paragraph of the Greek inscription stated that two translations, one in the sacred and the other in the popular Egyptian language, would be found adjacent to it.
The discovery of an alphabet was the first task. The demotic part of the inscription was first examined by De Sacy and Akerblad, and the signification of a number of the symbols ascertained. The hieroglyphic part was next carefully examined and compared with the demotic and Greek. At last after much study Champollion and Dr. Thomas Young, independently of each other, discovered the method of reading the characters in 1822, and thus provided a clue to the decipherment of the ancient Egyptian writing.
Hieroglyphic characters are either ideographic, i.e. using well-known objects as symbols of conceptions, or phonetic, i.e. representing words by symbols standing for their sounds. The phonetic signs are again divided into alphabetical signs and syllabic signs. Many of the ideographic characters are simple enough; thus the figure of a man, a woman, a calf, indicate simply those objects. Others, however, are less simple, and convey their meaning figuratively or symbolically.
Water was expressed by three zigzag lines, one above the other, to represent waves or ripples of running water, milk by a milk-jar, oil by an oil-jar, fishing by a pelicanseizing a fish, i.e. fishing; seeing and sight by an eye; and so on.
The nature of the phonetic hieroglyphs, which represent simply sounds are more diffuclt to explain. Characters represent sounds, thus a picture of a knee represents a K sound. A lioncouchant represents the L sound. A reed represents the E sound The reed is doubled to represents the diphthong 'ai'. A noose represents the O sound. A mat represents the P sound. An eagle represents the A sound. The hand represents the T sound. A semicircle is found at the end of feminine proper names, and is the Coptic feminine article T.
The researches of Champollion satisfied him of the existence of homophones, or characters having the same phonetic value and which might be interchanged in writing proper names. The mouth, represents the R sound. The egg is found at the end of proper names of women, and is a feminine affix. The hook represents the S sound Vowels were only regarded by the Egyptians as they were needed to avoid ambiguous writing.
There are groups of hieroglyphs of which one element is an ideographic sign, to which a phonetic complement is added to indicate the pronunciation of the ideographic sign. The words of a text could be written in hieroglyphs in three ways: 1. By phonetic hieroglyphs, 2. By ideographic hieroglyphs; and 3, by a combination of both. According to Ebers, in the perfected system of hieroglyphics the symbols for sounds and syllables are to be regarded as the foundation of the writing, while symbols for ideas are interspersed with them, partly to render the meaning more intelligible, and partly for ornamental purposes, or with a view to keep up the mystic character of the hieroglyphics. Research Hieroglyphics
High Church is a term applied to a party in the Church of England. It was applied first to a party among the younger clergy during the latter part of the reign of Elizabeth I who asserted that Calvinism was inconsistent with the ancient doctrine and constitution of the primitive church, and who claimed a divine right for episcopacy. Bishop Andrewes was the chief writer of this party, and Laud became its most active leader. The term now generally refers to those who exalt the authority and jurisdiction of the church, and attach great value to ecclesiastical dignities and ordinances, being more or less identified with the ritualistic party. Research High Church
Highness is a title of honour given to princes or other persons of rank, used with possessive pronouns his, her, etc, and with the addition of royal, imperial, serene, applied to the members of royal, imperial, and formerly some German sovereign families. Research Highness
Hippophagy is the practice of feeding on horse flesh. Hippophagi was the name given by old geographers to certain nomadic Scythian tribes on the north of the Caspian Sea, who fed on horse flesh. Horse flesh has been eaten for a considerable time in Germany some countries of Eastern Europe, and it was first regularly sold in Paris in 1866. Research Hippophagy
History (from the Greek historia, from historeo, meaning I inquire into) is a term first used by Herodotus in the sense which it has since retained, of a narrative of events and circumstances relating to man in his social or civic condition. A. record of bare facts by themselves does not constitute history. Such a record (forming a chronicle or annals) is chronologically valuable; but to attain the dignity of history we must have social events and evolution detailed with considerable fulness, and the growth and movements of society, from one phase to another, distinctly traced and recorded.
The modern school of historians devote much attention to the social life of the people; their method being further characterized by the utmost accuracy of research, the extreme importance assigned to contemporary documentary evidence, and careful weighing of data. The field of history proper is so far restricted as to its subject, that only the doings of a community possessing something of an independent organic life can constitute it.
History may be conveniently divided into ancient, mediaeval, and modern; but these divisions have little scientific value. The first includes the Jewish history and that of the nations of antiquity, reaching down to the destruction of the Roman Empire in 476 AD; the second begins with 476 and comes down to the discovery of America in 1492, or to the Reformation; the third section extends from either of these eras to our own times. The earliest written history is found graven on the monuments of Egypt, Assyria, etc. These, though of the barest description, have the value of contemporary chronicles. Next come the histories found in the canonical books of the Old Testament; but the real inventors of the artistic form of history were the Greeks. Research History
The Hitachi Zaxis is a range of Japanese medium hydraulic excavators. The Zaxis range are powered by an Isuzu AH-6HK1X 4-cycle water-cooled, direct injection turbocharged, Intercooled 6-cylinder engine providing a top speed of 5 kmh. The Zaxis range are fitted with caterpillar tracks and can traverse a 35 degree incline safely. Various attachments can be fitted to the boomarm for use in digging and demolition. Research Hitachi Zaxis
The Hitopadesa (goodly instruction), is an ancient Sanskrit work, taken from an older work called the Panchatantra or the five books, the source also of the collection known as the fables of Bidpai or Pilpay. The book consists of fables, one story growing out of another after the eastern fashion, with verses cited from ancient writers by the interlocutors, and was designed for the instruction of princes. It has been translated into many Asiatic and European languages. Research Hitopadesa
Hobbism is the name given to the philosophy and teachings of Thomas Hobbes.
Hobbism was the precursor of later Sensationalism, in his book Leviathan, Hobbes wrote 'There is no conception in a man's mind, which hath not at first totally or by parts been begotten upon the organs of sense.' Research Hobbism
Hocktide is an old term for the Monday and Tuesday in the week following the second Sunday after Easter. It is a common legal term in mediaeval documents and local festivities were held at hocktide up to the start of the 20th century. Research Hocktide
The hogshead was a British measure of tobacco ranging from 12 to 18 cwt and of liquid, applied to beer being equal to six firkins and to wine 63 gallons (fixed in 1423). A hogshead of brandy varied between 45 and 60 gallons during the 19th century. Research Hogshead
Holland was a closely woven white, or natural-coloured linen cloth with a glazed surface formerly used for linings, window-blinds and furniture covers. It was imported to Britain from Holland, and named after its country of origin. Research Holland
Hollow Ware was a former trade term for all kinds of vessels made of cast or wrought iron, and used for cooking and other purposes. Research Hollow Ware
The case of Holmes vs Walton was the first instance of an American court's assuming the authority to pronounce upon the constitutionality of an act of the Legislature. The Legislature of New Jersey had, in 1779, passed an act making lawful a trial before a jury of six men. In the case of Holmes vs Walton the constitutionality of this act was questioned, and upon its being decided unconstitutional by the Court of Appeals, the act was repealed and a constitutional jury of twelve men substituted. Research Holmes vs Walton
The Holy Alliance was a league concluded at Paris, on September the 26th, 1815, between Alexander I, emperor of Russia, Francis of Austria, and Frederick William III of Prussia, and signed with their own hands, and without the countersign of a minister. It consisted of a declaration, that, in accordance with the precepts of the gospel of Jesus Christ, the principles of justice, charity, and peace should be the basis of their internal administration, and of their international relations, and that the happiness and religious welfare of their subjects should be their great object. Its real aim, however, was to maintain the power and influence of the existing dynasties. It was offered for signature to all the European Powers except the pope and the sultan of Turkey, and accepted by all except Britain. The events of 1848 broke up the Holy Alliance. Research Holy Alliance
Holy Orders are the state of those who have entrusted to them, the power of exercising certain functions in the Christian Church. Thus the Anglican Church recognizes three orders: bishops, priests, and deacons. The Roman Catholic Church calls these (with the sub-deaconate) the
major orders. The minor orders being: acolytes, exorcists, readers, and doorkeepers, but these are
now only preliminaries to the priesthood. The Eastern Churches have the same major orders, but
only readers besides. The Armenianhierarchy is the same as the Roman.
There has been much controversy between Roman and Anglican theologians as to the validity of Anglican orders. In the bull Apostolicce Curae of 1896 the pope declared them to be invalid. In the Greek Church, however, Anglican orders were recognized.
The early history of orders in the Christian Church is much disputed. Some deny the Catholic claim that the threefold ministry existed from the beginning. Presbyterians defend their Church government on historic grounds. It is probable that at first (e.g., in the New Testament) bishops and presbyters were not differentiated. In the early 2nd century the monarchical episcopate was evolved. Research Holy Orders
Holy Thursday, or Ascension-day, in the Anglican Church, is a movable feast, always falling on the Thursday but one before Whitsuntide. In the East Catholic Church, Holy Thurdsay is the Thursday in Holy Week. Research Holy Thursday
The holy-alliance was an alliance formed at Paris on September 26th 1815, between the Emperors of Russia and Austria and the King of Prussia. On December 25th 1816 the Emperor of Russia, who was believed to be the real author of the alliance, made its character known publicly. These sovereigns undertook in future to act on the principal of the Gospel, and to support each other's authority. Other sovereigns were invited to join the alliance. The king of England declined the invitation declaring that the constitution of England did not allow him to sign such documents. Ultimately it became apparent that the object of the alliance was to support absolutism against popular aspirations for constitutional government, and when in 1821, the allied sovereigns invited the cooperation of other countries in putting down the revolution at Naples, Lord Castlereagh sent an unfavourable reply. The alliance subsequently interfered in the 19th century Spanish Revolution and then disappeared. Research Holy-Alliance
In feudal law, homage was a formal acknowledgment made by a feudal tenant to and in presence of his lord on receiving the investiture of a fief or coming to it by succession, that he was his vassal. The tenant, being ungirt and uncovered, kneeled and held up both his hands between those of the lord, who sat before.him, and there professed that 'he did become his man, from that day forth, of life and limb, and earthly honour,' and then received a kiss from his lord. Research Homage
Home and Away is an Australian television soap-opera, first aired in 1988, chronicles the lives, and loves of the residents of fictional 'Summer Bay', a small coastal town set in New South Wales. Home and Away was very obviously inspired by the earlier Australian soap-opera 'Neighbours' and has very similar characters, story lines and similarly appeals particularly to teenagers. Research Home And Away
The Homestead Law was an American law securing to any citizen the right to enter upon 160 acres of unappropriated lands at $1.25 an acre, and after five years' actual residence to own it. The law was passed on May the 20th, 1862 and proved of immense value in stimulating the settlement of the West. Research Homestead Law
The Homestead Riots was a bloody industrial dispute in American in 1892. On the final refusal of the workingmen's association to accept certain changes in the wage scale, the proprietors of the Carnegie Steel Mills, at Homestead, Pennsylvania, closed the works on July the 1st, 1892. The employees declared a strike about the same time. A mob prevented the sheriff from placing pickets in the mills. On July the 6th a body of 300 Pinkerton detectives arrived. A bloody fight between these men and the strikers immediately took place, resulting in considerable loss on both sides. The Pinkertons surrendered. The Pennsylvania militia was then ordered out and remained at Homestead until September to protect the mills. Many of the strikers were arrested and indictments were found against them. Research Homestead Riots
Homicide is the legal term for the killing of one human being by another. Homicide may be justifiable, excusable or felonous (illegal). Justifiable homocide includes instances such as where the proper officer inflicts capital punishment, where an officer of justice kills an offender who assaults or resists him and who cannot otherwise be captured, or where persons are killed in the dispersion of rebellious or riotous assemblies. Excusable homicide is generally when it happens from misadventure, as where a person in doing a lawful act by accident kills another, or in self-defence, as where a person kills another in defence of the life of himself, his wife, children, parent, or others. Felonous homicide includes both murder and manslaughter, Research Homicide
Homiletics is the art of preaching. It is that branch of practical theology which teaches the principles of adapting the discourses of the pulpit to the spiritual benefit of the audience, and the best methods which ministers of the gospel should pursue for instructing their audiences by their doctrines and example. Research Homiletics
A homily is a discourse or sermon read or pronounced to an audience on some subject of religion; a discourse pronounced in the church by the minister to the congregation.
The ancient homily was sometimes simply a conversation, the prelate talking to the people and interrogating them, and they in turn talking to and interrogating him. In modern use a homily differs but little from an ordinary sermon, the idea of simplicity, however, being always attached to it.
The earliest existing examples of the homily are those of Origen in the 3rd century. In the schools of Alexandria and Antioch this form of discourse was sedulously cultivated, and Clement of Alexandria, St Dionysius, and Gregory Thaumaturgus are among the names most eminent in this department. It was in later centuries, however, and in the hands of Atlianasius, Gregory of Nyssa, and Gregory of Nazianzus, Basil, Cyril of Jerusalem, and Cyril of Alexandria, and especially of Chrysostom that the homily reached its highest excellence. Augustine and Gregory the Great were among the western composers of homilies.
In the Church of England, after the Reformation, two official books of homilies were issued. These were called The First and Second Books of Homilies, and the former, ascribed to Thomas Cranmer, appeared in 1547; the latter, said to be by Jewell, in 1563. They were originally meant to be read by those of the inferior clergy who were not qualified to compose discourses themselves. Research Homily
Honey-comb is a waxen cellular structure framed by the bees to deposit their honey and eggs in. The wax is secreted by the insect in the form of small and thin oval scales in the folds of the abdomen. The comb is composed of a number of cells, most of them exactly hexagonal, and arranged in two layers placed end to end, the openings of the layers being in opposite directions. The comb is placed vertically, the cells being therefore horizontal. The sides of the cells are very thin, and yet the whole structure is of considerable strength. Some cells are destined for the exclusive reception of honey; others for the reception of larvae. Research Honey-comb
Honey-dew is a sweet saccharine substance found on the leaves of trees and other plants in small drops like dew. There are two kinds; one secreted from the plants, and the other deposited by aphides. Different kinds of manna are the dried honey-dew or saccharine exudations of certain plants. Research Honey-dew
Honeymoon is traditionally the thirty days following marriage. The term originates from the Teutonic tradition of drinking honey-wine (hydromel) for thirty days after marriage. In modern times the term refers to a short holiday taken by the couple following their marriage. Research Honeymoon
The hookah (narghileh) is an Orientalpipe, having the bowl attached to a vase containing water, through which the smoke passes with the purpose of cooling it, before entering a long flexible tube conveying it to the mouthpiece. Research Hookah
The term hooliganism derives from Hooley Gang, and has been used since 1900 to describe street ruffians and rowdiness. It was originally applied chiefly to the East-end of London, and conferences were held between 1900 and 1902 in London to try to combat the problem by encouraging clubs and brigades for the boys. Research Hooliganism
Hopkinsianism was the doctrine advocated by Samuel Hopkins, minister at Newport, USA from 1770, as an addition to Calvinism, that holiness consisted in pure, disinterested benevolence, and that all self-seeking was necessarily sinful. It exerted a liberalizing influence on the theology of the day. Research Hopkinsianism
Horae Canonicae, or simply Horae are the canonical or appointed hours at which certain hymns and devotions, themselves termed Horae or Hours, are performed in Roman Catholic monasteries. Research Horae Canonicae
The Horeb Jewish Society is a group of non-denominated Jewish missionaries, active around the world, who accept people from around the world from different religions and convert them to Judaism. Research Horeb Jewish Society
In ordinary speech the horizon is line where the earth and the sky seem to meet, or the circle which bounds that part of the earth's surface visible to a spectator from a given point. This is termed the sensible, visible, or apparent horizon, as distinguished from the rational or celestial horizon, an imaginary great circle, parallel to the sensible horizon, whose plane passes through the earth's centre, whose poles are the zenith and the nadir, and which divides the sphere into two equal hemispheres. In observations with the sextant at sea, when the real horizon is invisible a small basin containing mercury may serve as an artificial horizon. The observation that is then made is the
angle between the sun or star and the image of the sun or star in the basin of mercury, and it is easily seen that half this angle is the altitude of the object above the real horizon. In geology, the term is applied to any well-marked formation which suffices as a starting-point from which to study the rest. Research Horizon
Horn is a general term applied to all hard and pointed appendages of the head, as in deer, cattle, etc, but as a term denoting a particular kind of substance nothing should be called horn which is not derived from the epidermis or outer, layer of the integument, whether on the trunk, hoofs, or head.
Horn is a tough, flexible, semi-transparent substance, most liberally developed in the horns of bovine animals, but also found in connection with the 'shell' of the tortoise, the nails, claws, and hoofs of animals, the beak of bird and turtle, etc
Horn is softened very completely by heat, so as to become readily flexible, and to adhere to other pieces similarly softened. True horn consists principally of an albuminoid principle, keratin, with a small portion of gelatine and a little phosphate of lime. In some species of animals the males only have horns, as for instance the stag. In cattle both male and female have horns, though there are also hornless cattle.
Horns differ widely in the case of different animals. Thus the horns of deer consist of bone, and are deciduous; those of the giraffe are independent bones, with a covering of hairy skin; those of oxen, sheep, and antelopes consist of a bony core covered by a horny sheath. The horns of the rhinoceros alone consist exclusively of horny matter. The horns of oxen, sheep, goats, and antelopes are never shed, except in the case of the prong-horned antelope. The number never normally exceeds four, and in the case of deer the horns are branched.
The various kinds of horns were formerly employed for many purposes. The principal formerly used in the arts are those of the ox, buffalo, sheep, and goat. Deer horns were almost exclusively employed for the handles of knives and of sticks and umbrellas. Those which furnish true horn can be softened by heat (usually in boiling water), cut into sheets of various thickness, which sheets may be soldered or welded together at the edges so as to form plates of large dimensions, and were formerly polished and dyed so as to imitate the much more expensive tortoise-shell. The clippings of horn may be welded together in the same manner, and were formerly made into snuff-boxes, powder horns, handles for umbrellas, knives, forks, etc. As horn has the valuable property of taking on and retaining a sharp impression from a die, many highly ornamental articles were also turned out. Combs for the hair were made from the flattened sheets, and out of the solid parts of buffalo horns beautiful carvings were made. Research Horn
A hornbook was a piece of wood, with a handle, onto which was pasted or placed a piece of paper containing the alphabet, nine digits and the Lord's Prayer. The paper was covered with a thin film of transparenthorn (whence the name). This device was formerly used by children to learn to read, and were used in education in England from early times to the 18th century. Research Hornbook
In Scots law, horning was a writing commanding a debtor in the sovereign's name to pay within a certain time under pain of being 'put to the horn' and declared a rebel. Research Horning
In astrology, horoscope is a scheme or figure of the twelve houses, or twelve signs of the zodiac, in which is marked the disposition of the heavens at a given time and place, and by which astrologers tell the fortunes of persons, according to the position of the stars at the time of their birth. To each of the houses is assigned a particular virtue or influence. The ascendant is that part of the heavens which was rising in the east at the moment; this is the first and most important house, or house of life, and contains the five degrees above the horizon and the twenty-five beneath it. Other houses are those of riches, marriage, death, etc. Research Horoscope
In carpentry, a horse is a wooden frame used as a work bench. There are various types of carpenter's horses including the saw-horse, a frame used for supporting timber while it is sawn and the shave-horse which is a frame with a clamp or vice used for holding timber while it is shaved with a plane or draw-knife.
In military terminology, a horse was a wooden frame with a sharp ridge formerly used in armies as a punishment for delinquent soldiers who were forced to sit upon it. Similar items are used today in SMsexgames. Research Horse
Horse hair is hair obtained from the mane or tail of a horse and used in the manufacture of brushes. Horse hair is inferior to bristle, and used to make cheap brushes. Research Horse Hair
Horse latitudes are regions of calms and variable winds between latitudes 25 and 40 degrees North and South so- called because becalmed sailors whose food was running out used to throw their horses overboard. Research Horse Latitudes
A horse-shoe is a shoe for horses, consisting commonly of a narrow plate of iron or steel bent into a form somewhat resembling the letter U, so as to accommodate itself to the shape of the horse's foot. Horse-shoes do not appear to have been known to the ancients. Xenophon, Vegetius, and others mention various processes for hardening the hoofs so as to make them stronger, but say nothing of any protection like the horse-shoe. Iron horse-shoes are mentioned as being in use in Europe in the 9th century of our era. They seem to have been introduced into England by the Normans. Research Horse-Shoe
Horticultural Societies are societies formed for the encouragement of both the art and the science of the cultivation of garden plants. The Royal Horticultural Society of London, the first of its kind, was founded by Sir Joseph Banks and others in 1804. Research Horticultural Societies
Originally, a hospital was any building appropriated for the reception of any class of persons who were unable to supply their own wants, and were more or less dependent upon public help to have those wants supplied. Hence hospitals were of various kinds, according to the nature of the wants they supplied and the class of persons for whom they are intended. A large number of hospitals were medical; others were for the reception of incurables; others for the aged and infirm; others for the education of children of people in reduced circumstances; others for the reception of the wounded in battle; and so on.
The first establishments of this nature are believed to belong to the 4th century AD. Their primary object was to afford a shelter to strangers and travellers, and it was only occasionally that the sick and infirm were admitted. One of the earliest hospitals of which we have any satisfactory information was that established by the emperor Valens at Caesarea about the end of the 4th century, and which was conducted on a very large scale.
The Arabs in Spain, at an early period of their occupation of that country, founded a magnificent hospital at Cordova, where physicians were trained, who did a vast deal to advance the study of medicine. The Arabs have also the dubious credit of having founded the first mental hospital (then known as a lunatic asylum) in Europe, which was erected in the city of Granada. The majority of hospitals everywhere are medical, often called infirmaries. These may be divided into general and special hospitals, the former class admitting cases of all kinds; the latter class admitting only patients suffering from some special trouble. Thus there were formerly lying-in hospitals, cancer, consumption, ophthalmic, lock (for venereal diseases), fever, and small-pox hospitals. There are also hospitals for children, and for persons suffering from incurable diseases. Such institutions formerly served a double purpose, inasmuch as they not only afford the best medical advice and treatment to the poor, who otherwise were unable to obtain it prior to the formation of the national health service, but also supplied the best means of giving instruction in medicine and surgery, as in them students had the opportunity of witnessing cases of nearly every variety of disease, and observing how they it was treated by the physicians and surgeons. For this reason a good infirmary or medical hospital was considered an indispensable adjunct to every school of medicine and surgery. Research Hospital
Hospitallers are charitable brotherhoods who devote themselves to tend the sick in hospitals. The name is specially applied to an order of knights, the Knights of St. John. Research Hospitallers
Hospodar was a title of dignity formerly borne by the vassal princes of Moldavia and Wallachia, and in earlier times by the princes of Lithuania and the kings of Poland. Research Hospodar
A hostage is a person left as a pledge or surety for the performance of the articles or conditions of a treaty. Since the 19th century the taking or giving of hostages has been scarcely known in the relations of modern communities except in criminal activities, but was formerly almost universal, and many questions in the law of nations arose out of the practice. If the stipulated terms were observed the hostages were returned on each side, but if the terms were violated or evaded the hostages might be put to death. Research Hostage
A hostess bar is a bar typified by employing attractive women, usually but not necessarily prostitutes, whose job is to entertain customers. Customers entering such a bar are required to purchase drinks, and if they require the companionship of a hostess, they are required to purchase her drinks also - usually a very expensive cocktail or glass of champagne. To retain the companionship of the hostess the client is required to buy more drinks for her. These drinks hostesses can consume at an alarming rate. Hostess bars are found in major Western cities, such as London and Paris. During the 1990s a variation on the hostess bar evolved, that of the table or lap dancing bar. At these venues clients can pay a female performer to perform a naked or more usually semi-naked striptease, at their table or on their lap. Often table or lap dancers will also double as hostesses, mingling with the customers and encouraging the purchase of drinks from the bar. Often hostesses and also dancers, are not employed by the bar, but pay the bar owner a rent in order to
work on the premises, receiving back a percentage of monies earned and earning tips from customers. Research Hostess Bar
In gardening, a hot-bed is a bed of earth heated by fermenting substances, such as fresh stable dung, tanners' bark, leaves of trees, etc, and covered with glass to defend it from the cold air. Hot-beds are intended for raising early plants, or for nourishing exotic plants of warm climates, which will not thrive in cool or temperate air. Research Hot-Bed
The House of Burgesses was the lower branch of the Colonial Legislature of Virginia. The first House of Burgesses was summoned in 1619. The House met at Jamestown during the seventeenth century and at Williamsburg during the eighteenth century. The House of Burgesses consisted of two burgesses from each county, and one from each of the three towns and William and Mary College. The forms of procedure of the House of Burgesses was those of the House of Commons. The last session of the House of Burgesses occurred in 1774. Research House of Burgesses
A house of correction was formerly a prison for 'idle and disorderly persons', and certain classes of criminals, such as prisoners convicted of felony or misdemeanour, vagrancy, etc, or committed on charge of such. Originally vagrants, trespassers, and convicted persons were detained in these houses that they might be compelled to work. They were sometimes called bridewells. Formerly in England every county had to have one, and at the end of the 19th century few of the larger cities and towns were without them. Research House of Correction
Huckaback is a former type of linen cloth having raised figures on it somewhat resembling damask. It was used in England during the 19th century for table-cloths and towelling. Research Huckaback
The Hudson Bay Company was chartered by Charles II on May the 16th, 1670, for the discovery of a new passage to the South Sea, and for the finding of some trade for furs, minerals and other considerable commodities. Adopting the suggestion of Sir Alexander Mackenzie, it combined with the Northwest Company in 1821, and obtained a more extensive charter. It was ever the most formidable rival of the United States as a claimant of the northwest regions. Despite the treaty of 1783, which granted that territory to the United States, the company persisted in making settlements, and, being on the disputed ground, it had the advantage of the US Government. Every possible means was employed, and for a long time successfully, to prevent immigration from the United States. The Selkirk settlement in Oregon was made in 1811-12, and later it was decided to seize and hold Oregon by force, turning over the Indians to the Jesuits and furnishing troops to protect the priests and repel intruders. The boundary settlement of 1846 finally excluded the company. Research Hudson Bay Company
In English law, a hue and cry is the pursuit of a felon or offender, with loud outcries or clamour to give an alarm. This procedure was formerly allowed to be taken by a person robbed, or otherwise injured, in order to pursue and get possession of the culprit's person, or by an officer of justice. At common law, a private person who has been robbed, or who knows that a felony is committed, was bound to raise hue and cry. This was generally done by informing the nearest constable; and this process was long recognized by the law of England as a means of arresting felons and breaking open doors without the warrant of a justice of the peace. The same name was also applied to an official paper circulated to announce the perpetration of. offences. Research Hue and Cry
Humanities is a term for humane or polite literature, including the study of the ancient classics, in opposition to philosophy and science. In the Scotch universities humanity was formerly applied to the study of the Latin language and literature alone. Research Humanities
A Hundred was a former division of an English, and later Irish, shire or county having its own court. It was so called, according to some writers, because each hundred found 100 sureties of the king's peace, or 100 able-bodied men of war. Others think it to have been so called because originally composed of 100 families. Hundreds are said to have been first introduced into England by Alfred. formerly if a crime was committed, such as robbery, arson, killing or maiming cattle, destroying turnpikes or works on navigable rivers, the hundred had to make it good.
In America, during the 18th century, the Hundred was a territorial and political division of a county, borrowed from England, and instituted in some of the colonies, notably in Maryland and Virginia. It was also to be found in Maine and Delaware, and was based upon the old Hundred system of the English counties. In Virginia the Hundred was in some instances synonymous with the parish or the plantation, and again it was subdivided into parishes. The chief officer of the Hundred was usually the constable. Research Hundred
Hungary-water is a distilled water consisting of dilute alcohol aromatized with the tops of flowers of rosemary or other aromatic substances, used as a perfume. It is so called because it was first made for the use of a queen of Hungary. Research Hungary-Water
Hunting is the pursuit of four-footed beasts of game. Hunting differs from shooting birds or netting birds which is termed 'fowling', while the pursuit of birds by the use of birds of prey is known as 'hawking'. Research Hunting
Hurdles are frames formed of perpendicular stakes with horizontal bars, and braced with diagonal pieces for the purpose of forming temporary fences. In fortification the name was given to a collection of twigs or sticks closely interwoven and sustained by long stakes, serving to render works firm, or to cover traverses and lodgements for the defence of workmen against fireworks or stones. Research Hurdles
The hyde, or hide, was a measure of land, frequently mentioned in the Domesday book and in old English charters, and variously estimated as equivalent to 60, 80, and 100 acres - a fact which may be accounted for on the supposition that the quantity was always determined by local usage. It was such a portion of land as might be ploughed with one plough. The hyde at present is reckoned at 100 acres. Research Hyde
The case of Hylton vs United States was a legal action in the US. In 1795 Hylton, of Virginia, was presented by the District Attorney before the CircuitCourt for refusing to pay duty upon certain carriages, which, he averred, were kept for his own private use. The decree was against the defendant, and the case was transferred to the Supreme Court of the United States. The argument turned entirely upon the question of the tax being direct or indirect. The court decided it to be
indirect since it must be incapable of apportionment and could not be uniform. Accordingly judgment was affirmed for the defendant. Research Hylton vs United States
A hyperbola is a plane curve, one of the conic sections, formed by a plane that cuts both nappes of a right circular cone but does not pass through the vertex of the cone. A hyperbola has two U- shaped non-intersecting branches, identical in form, with the open parts facing in opposite directions; the arms of each branch separate as they recede. A hyperbola is also defined as the locus of all points, such that the difference between the distances from any point on the hyperbola to two fixed points, called the foci, is equal to a constant. Each branch contains one focus in its interior area; the line joining the foci intersects each branch in a point called a vertex. This line, or the segment between the vertices, is called the transverse axis. The line perpendicular to the transverse axis and passing through the point midway between the vertices, midway between the foci, is the conjugate axis. The two axes meet at the centre of the hyperbola, which is symmetric with respect to each axis and the centre.
A hyperbola has two asymptotes passing through the centre; an asymptote of a curve is a straight line with the property that the distance between it and the curve approaches zero as the curve recedes to infinity. A rectangular or equilateral hyperbola has asymptotes that are perpendicular to each other. The hyperbola has useful and important properties. In particular, the angle formed at a point on the hyperbola by the lines joining the point to the foci is bisected by the tangent to the hyperbola at that point. In astronomy, some orbits are hyperbolic in shape. The modern navigational device the loran also uses
hyperbolas. Research Hyperbola
A hyperbole is a rhetorical figure, in which an idea is expressed with a fanciful exaggeration of phrase which is not to be taken too literally, but only as representing a certain warmth of admiration or emphasis. 'His fame reaches to the stars' is an example of hyperbole. Research Hyperbole
Etymologically a hypothesis is a supposition, and the term is popularly used to denote something not proved, but assumed for the sake of argument. In scientific and philosophical usage the term hypothesis denotes either a probable theory of phenomena not yet fully explained, or a strictly scientific theory which accounts for all the known facts of the case, and which only needs the verification of subsequent observations and deductions to become a certainty. Thus the conjecture of Isaac Newton that the force of gravity, as exemplified on the earth, might extend to the moon, was in its first stage a probable hypothesis; but when it was found to account for all the facts, it became a scientific hypothesis or theory. Research Hypothesis
Abbreviations
General Information
Research H
