In pre-revolution Imperialist Russia, a ukase was an edict of the government, issued either by the tsar or the senate. The ukase, whether legislative or administrative in import, had the binding effect of law until annulled by a later ukase, and the collection of these edicts formerly made up the legal code of Russia. Research Ukase
An umbrella is a light, portable screen usually circular and supported on a central stick. They are used as protection against the rain and also sun - in which case they are usually refered to as a sunshade or parasol. Umbrellas are made of fabric, silk, paper, cotton or other materials stretched on a steel or wooden, radiating, folding frame supported on a central stick.
Umbrellas were known in England in the 17th century, but their use does not appear to have been general until the later part of the 18th century, Jonas Hanway being one of the first to make a habit of acrrying an umbrella.
By the invention of the 'Paragon' ribs, Samuel Fox, in 1852, improved upon the old umbrellas with wooden ribs, and did much tostimulate the trade of umbrella, making, among the chief centres of which were London, Manchester, Paris, Lyons, and Angers.
In the East, umbrellas were used as symbols of royalty and power from early times. In ancient Egypt and Nineveh sculptured remains show them carried in procession, and they are found pictured on Greek vases. Anglo-Saxon manuscripts show them carried by attendants over persons of rank. The Maratha princes of India were known as Lords of the Umbrella, and in Burma white umbrellas were reserved for the use of the king and the sacred white elephant; coloured ones, graduated according to their tint, belonged to corresponding grades in rank. The baldachin , the canopy of a throne or a pulpit, has the same original symbolical meaning as the umbrella. Research Umbrella
An umlaut is a mark of two dots side-by-side placed over a vowel in some languages - escpecially characteristic of the Teutonic fanily - such as German, indicating modification in the quality of the vowel. The term was invented by the German philologist J Grimm. Research Umlaut
An umpire is a person appointed to arbitrate or decide between two opposing parties. If several arbitrators disagree, an umpire is called in to settle the dispute. The term is used in various sports, notably in cricket there being two umpires at a match, who are not appointed by the parties. Research Umpire
Una is the heroine of the first book of Spenser's Faery Queene. She is the personification of truth, and having sought at the court of Gloriana (Queen Elizabeth I) a champion to slay the dragon which keeps her parents prisoner, secures the aid of the Red Cross Knights. They set forth together but get separated by the magic of Archimago, after which Una for a time is accompanied by a lion. Research Una
Uncial is an ancient style of writing in capital letters. Derived from an expression of St Jerome's, the term uncial denotes the rounder and less regular characters resulting from the adaptation of stone-incised capitals to vellum writing. Research Uncial
Uncle Tom's Cabin was a story by Mrs H. Beecher-Stowe published in portions in a newspaper in 1850 and then in a complete form in 1852. The story, based on the real-life events of Josiah Henson who recounted his tale to Mrs Beecher-Stowe, set forth the evils of slavery and was an enormous seller and contributed greatly to the abolition of slavery in Britain. The hero of the story, Uncle Tom, is a black slave noted for his fidelity, piety and hardwork who is sold and has to submit to terrible cruelty. Research Uncle Tom's Cabin
The Underground Railroad was a secret and philanthropical organisation which existed in the USA and Canada during the later years of slavery with the object of helping slaves escape bondage. Its chief centre was in Philadelphia. The Underground Railroad was a network of 'safe houses' and individuals who aided escaped slaves by providing them with food, shelter and money, to travel primarily to Canada where they automatically became freemen.
The Underground Railroad movement originated among the Quakers of Pennsylvania, and the system was gradually extended until a chain of stations was established a day's journey apart and leading from Kentucky and Virginia across Ohio, and from Maryland through Pennsylvania and New York to Canada. The stations were private houses, and the inmates were known to be pledged to the cause. The fugitives reached these stations after nightfall, were fed and clothed when it was necessary and given a night's rest. The sick were provided with a place in which to remain until they were restored to health.
Levi Coffin, a Quaker, and the reputed president of the organization, assisted in the escape of about 100 slaves annually for many years. He always had a carriage in readiness to convey the fugitives to a place of safety and organized sewing circles to provide clothing for the destitute. Harriet Tubman, a Black woman, who had escaped North, made nineteen journeys to the South and brought back bands of fugitives always without detection. The greatest secrecy was observed in all of the movements of the organization. The Underground Railroad was formally organized in 1838, but did not reach its perfection until the passage of the Fugitive Slave Law in 1850 aroused the Abolitionists to still greater exertions. Research Underground Railroad
Underlay is a term applied to material laid under a carpet to protect it. In mining, an underlay is the inclination from the vertical or horizontal of a vein, fault, or lode. The term is also applied to a perpendicular shaft sunk to cut the lode at a required depth. Research Underlay
Uniats are Oriental churches which have been brought into communion with the Church of Rome, but retain their ancient rites, liturgies, and customs. Their clergy are allowed to be married; they communicate in both kinds, and they use leavened bread in the Eucharist. They originated in Poland in 1596, when part of the LithuanianChurch submitted to the pope, but in the 18th and 19th centuries, under Russian pressure, many of their congregations rejoined the Greek Church. This Ruthenian Church, as it is called, is still by far the largest of the Uniat Churches chiefly in Poland, the Czech Republic and Slovakia. The Romanian Uniat Church, chiefly in Transylvania is next in size. Research Uniats
The Union Flag (formerly known as the Great Union and popularly known as the 'Union Jack') is the British royal flag. It was first produced in 1606 in response to a royal proclamation of James I with the object of providing a single flag for both England (including Wales) and Scotland which might put an end to disputes concerning the precedence of their respective banners of St George and St Andrew. The Union Flag combined the blazonry of the two rival ensigns, not marshalling them by quartering, but by blending them into a single composition. This was achieved by charging the cross of St George with a narrow white border and placing it on the banner of St Andrew. On the first of January 1801 the second Union Flag superseded the flag of King James and Queen Anne with the incorporation of the banner of Ireland, the saltire of St Patrick, following the Union with Ireland. The Union Flag has never been officially adopted by law, and as such remains a royal flag. The United Kingdom, unlike other countries doesn't have a national flag, though the Union Flag is accepted as such by its widespread usage. Research Union Flag
The Union Jack Club was a British institution for sailors, soldiers, and airmen. Soon after the close of the South African War steps were taken to establish a national memorial to the soldiers who fell in that war, and the scheme of a club where service men could meet was taken in hand. Named the Union Jack Club, a site for it was selected in the Waterloo Road, London, in close proximity to the station there. The club premises were opened on July the 1st, 1907, by King Edward VII. Membership was limited to all service men below the rank of officer. There they could deposit their kit, obtain good meals and a comfortable bedroom at a moderate charge. There was a library and writing-room, baths, barber's shop, club store at which everything for ordinary use could be purchased, including tobacco, and all the usual amenities of club life. In 1920 an extension called the Prince of Wales' wing was undertaken as a memorial to the service of the forces in the Great War. The cost of this and the original club was met by public subscriptions all over the empire.
The benefits of the Union Jack Club in the Great War were inestimable. All mobilised men including those from the Overseas Dominions and Allied countries, were given the use of the club. Research Union Jack Club
Unitarianism is a system of theology. It is a belief that God exists in one Person. Some writers maintain that Unitarianism was coeval with the Apostolic Church. Described as succeeding to Arianism, Arminianism, and Socinianiam, it has undergone, many changes in modern times. Unitarian congregations first arose in Poland and Hungary. Persecution, the martyrdom of men like Michael Servetus in Switzerland, John Biddle and Bartholomew Legate in England, and Francis David in Transylvania, as well as repression in Italy and elsewhere, gave it impetus. After the Reformation many Presbyterians, Independents, and Baptists were drawn to it, and Milton, Locke, Newton, and Isaac Watts are said to have favoured it. Among its leaders, James Priestley and James Martineau in England, and Theodore Parker and W E Channing in America are conspicuous. In the USA the name given to the system is Universalism.
With no creed, and opposed to dogma, its modern position in Great Britain has been defined as a belief in the unity of God, in the humanity of Jesus, who is regarded as a prophet superhumanly endowed in progressive revelation and in the immortal hope for all mankind. While believing in the fatherhood of God and the brotherhood of man, Unitarians deny the doctrine of the Trinity, the verbal infallibility of the Bible, and eternal torment. They claim to be open to all the revelations of science and evolution, and to all that is implied by the laws of change. Their ministers and congregations are free and independent.
Most of the churches have Sunday schools. The first Unitarian church in London was founded by Theophilus Lindsey in Essex Street, Strand. The British and Foreign Unitarian Association was founded in 1825; a national Unitarian conference was organized at Liverpool in 1882; and there are training colleges at Manchester and Oxford. Research Unitarianism
In May, 1643, at the solicitation of the Colonial Government of Connecticut, the colonies of MassachusettsBay, Plymouth, Connecticut and New Haven met by delegates at Boston, and bound themselves together under a written constitution for mutual protection against the Indians, and the French and Dutch settlers of Canada and New York. This league existed forty years. Each colony had one vote in controlling the league. Each managed its own internal affairs, the general management of the confederation being intrusted to a board of eight commissioners. After 1664 the confederation languished, and in 1684 it expired. Research United Colonies of New England
The United Kingdom Alliance was a British temperance society formed in 1853 with the aim of obtaining a law enabling the voters of each locality to exclude, partially or totally, the sale of intoxicating liquors. Research United Kingdom Alliance
The United Labor Party was an american political party organized in New York City in 1886. They ran Henry George as candidate for mayor that year. They proposed the formation of a national organization, and declared that values arising from the growth of society belonged to the community as a whole. Research United Labor Party
The United States Telegraph was an American newspaper. Publication of the newspaper was begun in Washington in 1826 by Duff Green. Jackson was then President and the U S Telegraph was established as the organ of his administration. This journal was afterward suspended, having achieved but little success,, and was superseded as official organ in 1830 by the Globe edited by Francis P Blair. Research United States Telegraph
Universals are propositions in philosophy, used in the explanation of how we are able to think or speak in quite general terms, to say such things as ' squirrels are red', rather than just say 'that thing is that colour'. They are also appealed to in explanation of our ability to form concepts (which are ideas of types of things), and to know, of some particular thing, whether or not it is an instance of a concept. So, the word 'squirrel' expresses the concept squirrel, and one who possesses the concept squirrel knows of the various things in the world whether they are squirrels or not. When we form a concept we come to know a universal, or type. The first and most famous theory of universals was Plato's theory of Forms. Philosophers still discuss the question of whether universals exist independently of the objects that are instances of them or exist only by virtue of being exemplified by particular things. Research Universals
University is the name given to a national institution for advanced teaching and study, recognized for that purpose by a charter from the state. A university is empowered by its charter to confer degrees upon its students, after they have conformed to the regulations laid down in the statutes. These regulations determine the conditions of length of residence, attendance on lectures, and the requisite examinations to be passed, precedent to the conferment of degrees.
Most universities are teaching universities, i.e. they contain a staff of teachers, styled professors, lecturers or readers, appointed each for the teaching of a special subject, to give instruction, and to direct the studies of students. Such students as are admitted to the university have had to qualify by passing an entrance examination, and are then said to be matriculated. From the time of matriculation to that of taking the degree, the student is called an undergraduate, and after conferment of the degree, a graduate. Degrees are of different grades, usually bachelor, master, and doctor. They can be taken in various groups of subjects, known as faculties. In the modern university examinations complete the courses of study followed under the instruction and direction of professors.
Historically, it is to be noted that the original term for a university was studium generate, which means a place in which were established facilities for teaching and learning, open to all comers, and not restricted to a special community of a town, or of a monastery. Thus, to the medieval universities of Italy, and to that of Paris, students went from various European countries, and found it convenient to group themselves into nations, according to the country or province from which they came. Thus, a studium generale contained many associations or groups, not altogether without analogy to trade and craft guilds.
It was in the latter part of the 14th century that universitas came to be used in the sense of a university. In other words, the first use of universitas was for voluntary groups, and only developed gradually into the idea of the whole institution, as recognized by the emperor or the pope, when its position was guaranteed by an imperial charter or papal bull. This seal of authority not only gave unity to the community of teachers and scholars as a whole, but also became a symbol of the unity of the whole learned world, because universities thus chartered were alone enabled to confer on their graduates degrees (certifying studies and training in teaching) which carried with them the right of teaching not only in their own university or their own country, but also in any studium generate.
This right was particularly valuable in the spread of knowledge, because medieval teachers and scholars communicated everywhere, both orally and by writing, through the medium of the Latin language and not through the vernacular. They naturally valued highly the facility of moving about from university to university at home and abroad. Roughly speaking, this use of Latin, as the language of teaching and learning, broke up with the decline of the Renaissance. We may date the beginning of the downfall of the Latin language for England with the Restoration of 1660. Not only has Latin fallen entirely out of use as a spoken language, but in some modern universities movements have arisen to minimise the study of ancient languages for degrees, if not to remove them as necessary subjects for all degrees. The modern civic universities are inclined to lay great stress on the subjects underlying the special industries of their localities. Hence, in some ways and to some extent there has been a reversal of the old idea that the university developed in the student a power of entering into the knowledge and learning common to all the universities.
On the other hand the since the Great War universities have laid more and more stress on the 'university spirit'. This means a constant watchfulness to aid and promote the advancement of learning and discovery of knowledge, to provide the stimulus of intellectual inquiry in every subject, and to raise the tone and level in all professional training. Particularly, it aims at encouraging in teachers and in taught a right and effective attitude towards methods of research. Research University
University College is a College of Oxford University, England. It ranks first on the official list of colleges. A very doubtful tradition ascribes its origin to Alfred the Great. In 1872 the millennium of its establishment was celebrated, and there is reason to believe that a society of some kind was in existence befiore 1249, when a certain William of Durham left some money for the purpose of founding a college. Its head is the master. The buildings, which front the High Street, date partly from the 17th century, including the chapel hall and old library, and partly from the 19th. Research University College Oxford
The University of Dublin was founded in 1591, when a charter, or letters-patent, was granted by Queen Elizabeth I for the incorporation of the 'College of the Holy and Undivided Trinity,' the University and Trinity College being practically the same. Research University of Dublin
Unwritten Law was a popular term for as assumed right to execute summary vengeance on behalf of a female relative by killing her violator or seducer. Although occasionally allowed by American courts as recently as the 1930's - and to date in some southern states when the alleged violator was Black and the victim White - , the principle has never been recognised in British law. Research Unwritten Law
A upher was a former fir pole of from four to seven inches diameter, and twenty to forty feet long, sometimes roughly hewn, used for scaffoldings, and sometimes for slight and common roofs, for which use it was split. Research Upher
The upholders or upholsters is a London city livery company. Granted arms in 1465 and admitted later to the Skinners' fraternity, it wag given a charter in 1626. Upholders seem at first to have been engaged in the peltry trade, then to have been fripperers or dealers in second-hand clothes, furniture, warehousemen, furniture dealers, pawnbrokers, and undertakers. Research Upholders
Upholstery is the art of making cushions, covering the rigid frames of chairs, sofas, beds and other furniture with flexible material either naturally springy or made so by the introduction of steel springs. Research Upholstery
An upper housemaid is a domestic servant assisted by one or more under housemaids, with the work being divided between them. The duties of housemaids include dusting ornaments, cleaning the furniture of the principal apartments, and basically keeping the house in general clean and tidy. This included the sweeping of the floors, removal of the shutters from the windows in the morning, cleaning and blacking the grate of the fires, sweeping out the ashes from the fire places, lighting the fires, making the beds, clearing the chamber-pots from the bedrooms etc. Research Upper Housemaid
Uppingham School is an English public school. It was founded in 1584 by Robert Johnson, and was for nearly 300 years a country grammar school. In 1853 Edward Thring was appointed headmaster, and under him it became a great public school. New buildings were erected, and it has now museum, laboratories, swimming bath, etc. The chapel dates from 1891. Divided into upper, middle, and lower divisions, it has accommodation for 450 boys. Research Uppingham School
A uraeus was a representation of a sacredasp or African hooded cobra, worn on the head-dress of ancient Egyptian royalty. The emblem migrated to Phoenicia, and is also found in Mexico and India. Research Uraeus
Uranus is one of the outer planets of the solar system. It was discovered on March the 13th, 1781, by Sir William Herschel - and named Georgium Sidus - who also detected, on January the 11th, 1787, two of the Uranian satellites, Oberon and Titania. The mean distance of the planet from the sun is 1,782,000,000 miles, its period of revolution round the sun 84 years, its diameter 31,700 m., and though sixty-four times as big as the earth it is only fifteen times as heavy. Its period of rotation on its own axis is uncertain. Certain markings on its disk caused Brenner in 1896 to deduce a period of 8 hours 27 mins. Other estimates make the period approximately ten hours. Two further satellites have been discovered, Ariel and Umbriel, both by Lassell in 1851. The satellites are remarkable for revolving in a plane nearly at right angles to the orbit of the planet, and for having a retrograde motion. The spectrum of the planet indicates that the atmosphere contains a quantity of free hydrogen, and it is probable that the planet is still at a high temperature. Due to the irregularities in the orbit of Uranus, the remarkable mathematical and consequent telescopic discovery of Neptune was made. Research Uranus
Urim and Thummim were sacred objects which the ancient Hebrews employed as oracles or media for learning the will of God. They were probably two small stones, representing 'yes' and 'no', one of which was shaken out of some receptacle. In more difficult cases, as in 1 Sam 14, an agreement was previously made as to the meaning to be attached to the lots. In a late document, Ex. XXVIII, 30, they are referred to as carried in the high priest's breastplate. The whole question of Urim and Thummim is obscure, even the meaning of the words, which have been translated as Lights and Perfections, or as Light and Darkness, being uncertain. Research Urim and Thummim
Usufruct was a term in Roman law signifying the right to reap the fruits or take the benefit of things belonging to others. It might exist in land, houses, slaves or anything that is not consumed by use. A usufructuary of land was in the same position as a tenant for life in England, with the addition that he had the right to open new mines and quarries. Research Usufruct
Utopia is a Greek word meaning 'nowhere' and the name for an ideal community. It is the title of the book written in 1516 by Sir Thomas More in which he describes an island with perfect inhabitants and laws. Research Utopia
Abbreviations
General Information
Research Ukase