Vagrancy is the state of homelessness, vagabondage. Formerly, in English law the term was applied to various classes of idle and disorderly persons. The principal Act in this connexion was the Vagrancy Act, 1824, extended in certain directions by Vagrancy Acts of 1838, 1873, and 1878, and further amended by the Casual Poor Act, 1882, and the Criminal Law Amendment Act, 1912.
Three classes of vagrants were recognized by the law: (1) Idle and disorderly persons ; (2) rogues and vagabonds ; (3) incorrigible rogues. The sentence on conviction varied from one month for the first class, to one year's imprisonment for the third. Research Vagrancy
Vale is a name applied to a type of valley common in the lowlands of England. Usually it is a wide level-floored valley between hill ridges, with a scarp on one side and a gentle slope on the other. The Vale of Oxford lies between the scarp of the Chilterns and the gentle slope of the Cotswolds. Research Vale
Valentine's Day is celebrated in many countries on February 14 as a festival of romance and affection. People send greeting cards called valentines to their sweethearts, friends, and members of their families. Many valentine cards have romantic verses, and others contain humorous pictures and sayings. Many say, 'Be my valentine.' Valentine's Day parties and dances are often held. Many people send flowers, chocolates, or some other gift to their wives, husbands, or sweethearts. The earliest records of Valentine's Day in English tell that birds chose their mates on that day. People used a different calendar before 1582, and February 14 came on what is now February 24. Research Valentine's Day
A valet is a domestic servant performing a general role as a man's personal attendant and also superintending the other servants, a lady employing a waiting-maid in a similar role. Within the hierarchy of domestic servants, the valet was almost at the top, receiving orders only directly from his master, dressing him, accompanying him on his journeys, being a confidant and generally 'right-hand man'. In her book 'Household Management', published in 1861, Mrs Beeton describes the duties of a valet as follows:
His day commences by seeing that his master's dressing-room is in order; that the housemaid has swept and dusted it properly; that the fire is lighted and burns cheerfully; and some time before his master is expected, he will do well to throw up the sash [open the window] to admit fresh air, closing it, however, in time to recover the temperature which he knows his master prefers. It is now his duty to place the body-linen on the horse before the fire, to be aired properly; to lay the trousers intended to be worn, carefully brushed and cleaned, on the back of his master's chair; while the coat and waistcoat, carefully brushed and folded, and the collar cleaned, are laid in their place ready to be put on when required. All the articles of the toilet should be in their places, the razors properly set and stropped, and hot water ready for use.
Gentlemen generally prefer performing the operation of shaving themselves, but a valet should be prepared to do it if required; and he should be a good hairdresser. Shaving over, he has to brush the hair, beard and moustache, where that appendage is encouraged, arranging the whole simply and gracefully, according to the age and style of the countenance. Every fortnight, or three weeks at the utmost, the hair should be cut, and the points of the whiskers trimmed as often as required. A good valet will now present the various articles of the toilet as they are wanted; afterwards, the body-linen. Neck-tie, which he will put on, if required, and, afterwards, waist-coat, coat, and boots, in suitable order, and carefully brushed and polished.
Having thus seen his master dressed, if he is about to go out, the valet will hand him his gloves, and hat, the latter well brushed on the outside with a soft brush, and wiped inside with a clean handkerchief, respectfully attend him to the door, and open it for him, and receive his last orders for the day.
He now proceeds to put everything in order in the dressing-room, cleans the combs and brushes, and brushes and folds up any clothes that may be left about the room, and puts them away in drawers.
Mrs Beeton goes on to describe how some gentlemen are indifferent to their clothes and appearance, and how it is the duty of the valet to select suitable clothes for his master and to check and ensure all clothes are clean, paying particular attention to collars which often become greasy and dirty. In addition, the valet liases with the tailor, perfumer and linen-draper.
The valet also dresses his master for dinner and any other occasion, and is awaiting his master's return to the house, ensuring that the master's drawing-room is properly ready with fire lit and candles prepared. Research Valet
Validity is that feature of arguments or chains of reasoning studied by the science of logic. The notion of validity may be defined in two ways. The first uses the notion of truth: an argument is valid if the truth of its conclusion is guaranteed by the truth of its premises. The second appeals to basic accepted patterns of reasoning or principles of inference, for example that given 'A' and 'If A then B' one may infer 'B': a conclusion validly follows from certain premises if it can be derived from them in accordance with basic principles. A central question in modern work in logic is whether a complete set of principles of reasoning can be specified, so that any argument valid in the first sense is also valid in the second. Research Validity
Vallauris Ware is a porous red claypottery produced at Vallauris, near Cannes. It is covered with an opaque olive-green glaze and decorated with flower over-glaze. Research Vallauris Ware
A valley is a long narrow depression in the earth's crust, flanked by well defined ridges and usually due to the erosive action of rivers or glaciers but sometimes due to trough-faulting.
Longitudinal valleys are the hollows between the up-folded mountain ranges, parallel to the mountains, and they usually contain a largee river. Similar valleys occur between upfoldod mountains and the crustal plateau which has resisted upheaval. The Indo-Gangetic valley between the upfolded Himalayas and the Deccanplateau is the largest example of this type.
The valley cut by vertical erosion is usually V-shaped in cross-section and irregular in its course, its gradient being punctuated by sudden drops and long shelves. These irregularities represent local base levels which are gradually removed by denudation, so that as the falls are worn back and lakes infilled the breaks in the profile are reduced. In southern England the valleys of the Severn and the Thames show the results of denudation, which has carved away the softer rocks, and left the more resistant ridges of the Cotswolds, Downs, and Chilterns, which confine the drainage system.
With lateral erosion and mass movement, the valley broadens. Deposition occurs as the gradient slackens, and floodplains fill the valley floor. Rejuvenation leaves remnants of old floodplains above the new ones in the form of terraces, the highest of which are the oldest. A lowering of the water-table may leave dry valleys, and sudden uplift may leave hanging valleys, while the flooding of valleys by the sea gives rias or 'drowned valleys' which are existing estuaries where the sea has encroached upon the lower courses of rivers, such as the Gulf of St Lawrence. Research Valley
A valley train is an elongated deposit of material originally transported by a glacier which has been re-worked by rivers of melt-water, filling the floors of the glaciated valleys. Valley trains resemble outwash plains, but are confined to valleys. Research Valley Train
A value judgement is a judgement which accords value of a certain kind, especially moral value, to an object. The contrast is with a factual judgement. An example of a value judgement would be 'Torture is evil'; of a factual judgement, 'Torture is widespread'. Value judgements have immediate implications for what ought to be done. That there is a gap between judgements of fact and value was argued by Hume, who made the point that no value judgement can be deduced from any number or kind of factual judgements. Those who accept Hume's claim often go on to say that the meaning of value judgement is not descriptive but prescriptive or emotive. Research Value Judgement
A van was originally a large covered wagon or a carriage attached to a railway train, and used for conveying luggage. In modern times the term refers to a relatively small, motor vehicle, larger than an ordinary automobile but smaller than a truck or lorry, used for transporting light goods. The word van is an abbreviation for caravan. Research Van
In Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress, Vanity Fair is one of the dangerous places through which Christian journeyed on his pilgrimage to Zion; a fair wherein were displayed all the worldly vanities for tempting him from his way. It has been suggested that Bunyan wrote from recollections of the great annual fair at Stourbridge, near Cambridge.
Vanity Fair was a novel written by W. M Thackeray, in 1848. The author's most characteristic work in the more serious satiric vein, it presents a group of selfish people, living, in his own phrase, without God in the world. Social pretence, snobbery, meanness, chicanery are typified, and held up to reprobation in the astounding gallery of firmly drawn characters presented in this novel of English life during the first half of the 19th century.
Vanity Fair was the first society journal. It was founded in 1868 by Thomas Gibson Bowles and illustrated by Grebville Murray. Vanity Fair was popular for its caricatures of the political and social notabilities of the day. Research Vanity Fair
A vapour trail is a trail of condensed water vapour that appears in the wake of an aircraft or rocket at high altitude. Vapour trails appear as a white streak, like long, thin, regular clouds, against the sky and quickly broaden and disintegrate. Research Vapour Trail
A varnish is a solution of resins or drying oils forming a transparent, hard, shiny surface on drying. Spirit varnishes use alcohol and other volatile liquids as the solvent, oil varnishes one of the drying oils, eg linseed oil, poppyseed, etc, usually diluted with oil of turpentine Resins dissolved in turpentine alone are often known as crystal varnishes. The usual resins are shellac, mastic, sandarac, etc, for spirit varnishes ; and amber, copal, kauri, etc., for oil varnishes. Lacquers are natural varnishes. Research Varnish
Vathek is a romance wriiten by William Beckford and named after its principal figure. It was written and published in French in 1787. Samuel Henley's English translation appeared a year earlier. Vathek is regarded as the most remarkable Oriental tale imagined and written by a European author. Research Vathek
The Vatican Council was a council of the Roman Catholic Church, summoned by Pius IX in 1868. The encyclical convoking it, was issued on June the 29th, 1868, just over 300 years after the dissolution of the Council of Trent and at a time judged by many Roman Catholics to be inopportune Pius IX was determined, however, and the council met at St Peter's, on December the 8th, 1869. There were over 700 prelates present, including 49 cardinals, 121 archbishops, and 479 bishops. Several sessions were devoted to restating theological points before the real subject of the council was reached, but on July the 18th, 1870, the definition was made of papal infallibility. Although little, if any, doubt was expressed as to the doctrine itself, many of the prelates felt grave doubts as to the opportuneness of its definition. The outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War and the capture of Rome by the Italians necessitated an adjournment, on October the 20th, 1870. Research Vatican Counil
In drama, vaudeville is a light and amusing play in which dialogue is intermingled with songs, and almost identical with musical comedy. The term originated in the 15th century with Olivier Basselin of the valleys of the Vire, in Normandy, the author of a number of drinking and love songs, which he circulated under the title Lais des Vaux de Vire, of which Vaudeville is a corruption. Research Vaudeville
Vauxhall (known in Europe as Opel) are a British motor car manufacturing firm (now owned by General Motors) which was established at London in 1903. Vauxhall is primarily concerned with the production of affordable, everyday domestic motor cars and vans. Research Vauxhall
The Vauxhall Astra is a range of compact sized domestic motor cars produced in sport hatch, five-door hatch and five door estate models, with various engine sizes of 1.4 litres, 1.7 litres, 1.8 litres, 1.9 litres, 2.0 litres and 2.2 litres all with a five-speed gear box, some with a diesel engine and some petrol powered. In all there are over 380 different variations of the Vauxhall Astra, the popular AstraClub models with a petrol engine typically reach 60 mph from still in about 10.7 seconds and achieve in the region of 33 mpg. Research Vauxhall Astra
The Vauxhall Vectra is a series of four-door saloon and five-door hatchback family cars produced in various engine sizes of between 1.6 and 2.6 litres providing top speeds of between 120 and 148 mph, most models achieving a top speed in the region of 121 mph. Research Vauxhall Vectra
Veadar is a month of the Jewish calendar intercalated at leap year. The ordinary year consists of 12 lunar months, making 354 days. To ensure that Passover, the 16th day of Nisan, shall occur at the full moon of the spring equinox, an adjustment is made by introducing a leap year of 384 days. This leap year comes seven times in each period of 19 years. In the leap year, an additional day is added to the monthAdar and the remaining 29 days form the month Veadar (double Adar), which is intercalated between Adar and Nisan, thus becoming the 7th month of the civil and the 1st of the ecclesiastic year. Research Veadar
Vega is the second brightest star of the northern hemisphere. It is the first star, Alpha Lyrae, in the constellation of the Lyre. A very white star, with hydrogen dominant in it, its parallax is 0.082 seconds, and it has a brilliancy equal to that of 100 suns. It will be the Pole Star between AD 15,000 and 16,000. Research Vega
In its narrow, everyday use, vegetable is a word indicating any herb that is cultivated specially for table use in whole or part, such as the turnip (root), cabbage (leaves), broccoli (flowers), peas and beans (fruit). In its widest sense it includes all living things that are not animals - trees, shrubs, herbs, ferns, mosses, seaweeds, fungi, and the microscopic diatoms.
The unit of structure, the cell, is essentially the same in both animals and plants, but the combination of the cells into tissues and organs shows marked differences.
All animals depend for their food upon material originally elaborated by plants. The green plants alone have the power to construct this basic food material from elemental substances, and physiological processes different from those of animal assimilation are rendered necessary. The fungi approach the animals in this respect: they must feed upon material that has already done service as part of the structure of other plants or of animals.
The fine divisions of roots explore the soil in search of water in which are dissolved the salts of sodium, iron, potassium, phosphorus, calcium, sulphur, etc. The hairs with which the rootlets are clothed absorb this fluid by osmosis, and it is passed upward through the long vessels of the wood bundles until it reaches the cells of the leaf. These cells contain green bodies (chloroplasts) in their protoplasm, and it is these that impart the green colour to leaves and soft shoots. In the leaf-skin (epidermis) there are innumerable pores or stomata through which surplus water from the roots is evaporated and through which atmospheric air is admitted to the spaces between the leaf-cells.
The chloroplasts in these cells have the power to utilise solar energy in decomposing the carbon dioxide of the air, and the cells retain the carbon, setting free the oxygen. Water from the roots is broken up also into its elements, hydrogen and oxygen, and with these plus carbonstarch is formed. This, converted into grape sugar, is passed from cell to cell to parts of the plant whore it is needed for the production of new cells, wood, bark, leaves, or fruit. Starch is the material from which are made all the organic substances produced by the plant.
The surplus over present requirements is stored up as reserves in seeds, enlarged roots or stems, bulbs, or tubers for renewed growth or floral display at a later season. Waste products are converted into resins, oils/wax, or alkaloids - many of these being of considerable economic value to man. Part of the water stream from the roots passes by osmosis from cell to cell, where it is necessary in order to keep the protoplasm in an active condition; any insufficiency is followed by a flagging of the tissues, the drooping of leaves and young shoots. In addition to the absorption of carbon by the protoplasts for building purposes, the leaf-cells also take up oxygen from the atmosphere and give off carbon much as animals do.
As the plant respires without lungs and assimilates without digestive organs, so also it can effect movements without a muscular system and react to external stimuli without a nervous system. It is sensitive to light and heat; many plants have distinct night and day positions for their leaves. It responds positively and negatively to the force of gravity, the root going down into the earth and the stem rising into the air. The growing tip of a stem or shoot commonly nutates, i.e. moves from side to side or in a circle or ellipse. The plant can orientate itself, i.e. take up a definite position in regard to the incidence of light or other external stimulus. These movements appear to be controlled largely by alterations in the position of the mobile chloroplasts.
The reproductive process is, in essentials, similar to that of animals, the ovules or seed-eggs in the ovary requiring to be fertilised by male sperms represented by the pollen grains produced in the anthers. The result of such fertilisation is to cause the ovule to develop into an embryo capable of further development under suitable conditions into a plant resembling the parent. Research Vegetable
Vegetarianism is a movement which originally aimed at making vegetable foods the solediet of human beings, but now refers to those individuals who keep a diet solely of vegetable foods. The vegetarianism movement began in Europe about 1850, and its followers abstain from eating the flesh of animals and birds. Some eat fish, but others do not, while strict vegetarians abstain from all food which comes from animals, such as eggs, milk, butter, and cheese.
One reason for vegetarianism is the dislike of inflicting pain, but it is also advocated as providing a more nourishing and economical diet. It is also claimed that a vegetarian diet makes persons less liable to certain diseases, e.g. cancer, and less gross in their appetites and desires, while it is also advocated on economic and patriotic grounds. Akin to the vegetarians are the fruitarians, who maintain life solely on a diet of fruit.
In the 19th century the movement made a good deal of progress in Great Britain, the USA, and several European countries. Vegetarian restaurants were opened in large towns, and other measures taken to popularise vegetarian dishes. Research Vegetarianism
Vellum (named from the old French Velin whih derives from the Latin vitulinus meaning of a calf) is a type of superior parchment made from the skin of a calf, kid or lamb, and given a smooth finish. The once celebrated Strasbourg vellum was prepared with remarkably fine pumice stones. Vellum, known since earliest times as a material for manuscripts and books, is now rarely used, though it was used for bookbinding during the late 19th century. Research Vellum
Velocipede was an early term for any kind of carriage driven by the feet, and the term encompassed bicycles and tricycles and the dandy-horse. The term velocipede was first used in France around the end of the 18th century. Research Velocipede
Veneer is a very thin piece of wood, like paper, used to cover other less valuable wood. The art of veneering was known to the ancient Egyptians and veneered furniture has been found from the 15th century BC. Research Veneer
In horology, a verge is the spindle of a watchbalance, especially one with pallets, as in the old vertical escapement. In horticulture a verge is the edge or outside of a bed or border. The term is also applied to a slip of grass adjoining gravel walks, and dividing them from the borders in a parterre. Research Verge
The Vermont Gazette or Green Mountain Post Boy was the first newspaper of the State of Vermont. It was begun at Westminster by Spooner and Green, on February the 12th, 1781, and was suspended two years later.
Verner's Law is a linguistic law formulated in 1875 by Karl Verner of Copenhagen by which certain apparent failures of Grimm's Law are explained. Research Verner's Law
Verse is the principal unit by which metrical compositions are measured. generally speaking, it is equivalent to what we term commonly the line. The elementary unit of metrical compositions is the 'foot' - i.e. a little group of one or more syllables measured either by accent or by quantity. The verse in turn consists of a certain number of these feet grouped in definite order, on the conclusion of which the writer turns back and repeats the same or a closely related group. As the following verse or verses may vary slightly from the original pattern, so as to form what is strictly termed a stanza, the word verse is sometimes stretched to cover this more elaborate grouping, which is then taken as the principal metrical unit. Research Verse
A vestry is a room attached to a parishchurch where the vestments and ornaments are kept, and which is also used for parochial meetings. Research Vestry
In printing, a vignette is a decorative design, originally representing vine branches or tendrils, at the head of a chapter, of a manuscript or printed book, or in a similar position. The term later came to be applied to any small picture in a book and also to pictures, such as an engraving, a photograph, or the like, which vanishes gradually at the edge. Research Vignette
Viral marketing is a form of marketing, or advertising, that became popular in the late 1990's with the spread of the Internet. Viral marketing involves producing a piece of advertising that is so designed that it will be copied and passed from person to person. For example, a mobile telephone ring tone, a computer screensaver or a cartoon or movie. Research Viral Marketing
The Virginia company was an English company formed during the reign of James I to send out colonists to Virginia, in America.
On April the 10th, 1606, James I set apart by charter the territory between Cape Fear and Passamaquoddy Bay to be settled by two rival companies, the Virginia Company of London, and the North Virginia or Plymouth Company. To the London, or Virginia Company proper, was granted the land between parallels 34 degrees and 41 degrees north, or between Cape Fear and Long Island. This company was composed of London merchants and adventurers.
In 1606 an expedition consisting of three vessels and 143 men, commanded by Christopher Newport, was fitted out, landed in Chesapake Bay, and succeeded in founding, on May the 13th, 1607, the first permanent English settlement in America at Jamestown, , Virginia - named in honour of the king.
In 1609 a new charter was granted and the company reincorporated under the name of the London Company of Virginia; still another in 1612. Other colonizing parties arrived in 1609, 1611 and 1619, and by 1630 the colony of Virginia was firmly established. The majority in the company was of the political party in England opposed to the court. It fell into difficulties with the king, who in 1624 caused its charter to be annulled. The company then dissolved. Research Virginia Company
There were eight Virginia Coupon Cases cases. All related to the legislation of the State of Virginia in 1871, authorizing the receipt of coupons of the State's funded debt, in payment of taxes and debts due the State. These cases came before the Supreme Court of the United States in 1884. The act of the Virginia General Assembly of 1882 required payment of tax dues in gold, silver, United States treasury notes, national bank currency, and nothing else. Hence the tax collectors refused to receive coupons in payment of taxes as authorized by the Act of 1871. The Supreme Court of the United States decided the Act of 1882 void as impairing the obligation of the contract of the Act of 1871, and judgment was found for the plaintiffs, the tax-payers. Research Virginia Coupon Cases
There were four newspapers entitled Virginia Gazette published in Virginia during the 18th century, and all at Williamsburg. William Parks established the first, in August, 1736, it being the first newspaper published in the province. Publication was suspended in 1750.
William Hunter founded the second Virginia Gazette, in February, 1751. Publication was suspended after the American War of Independence.
The third Virginia Gazette was begun by William Rind, in May, 1766. Publication was suspended in 1774.
Davis and Clarkson published the fourth Virginia Gazette beginning in April, 1775, and continuing several years. There was also a Virginia Gazette published in Richmond for a very short period about 1804 by A Davis, a semi-weekly. Research Virginia Gazette
The Virginia Resolutions were resolutions passed by the Virginia legislature in 1798, in antagonism to the loose construction view of the Federalists. The passage of the Alien and Sedition laws was the direct cause of their adoption. They were framed by James Madison and sent to the legislatures of the other States, by which they were not approved. They declared the Union to be a compact, each party to which had a right to 'interpose' in order to protect and defend itself against infringements of the compact. They regretted the introduction of a broad construction of the constitution, as tending toward a monarchy. They protested against the Alien and Sedition laws as unconstitutional. With the Kentucky Resolutions of 1798 and 1799, these were the foundations of the later doctrines of nullification and secession. Research Virginia Resolutions
The Virginius was an American merchant vessel, which was captured on the high seas near Jamaica by the Spanish man-of-war Tornado, on October the 31st, 1873, on the ground that it intended landing men to assist in the Cuban insurrection then in progress. Four Cubans found among the passengers, and Captain Fry, with a number of others, were executed. This caused considerable excitement in the United States. Spain, however, made immediate and ample reparation. The incident served to foment the filibustering spirit against Cuba rife among a certain statesmen of the USA. Research Virginius Incident
A volcano is a vent in the earth's crust from which molten rock, ashes and steam are ejected. The lava tends in time to heap up a conical eminence round the vent, thus forming the crater or cup, or even a volcanic mountain. Research Volcano
The Volkswagen Polo is a range of German small cars of the 'Supermini' genre, produced with various engine sizes ranging from 1.2 litres to 1.9 litres, in both petrol and diesel models. The middle of the series 1.2 litre Match model was a five-door hatchback and had a top speed of about 100 mph. Research Volkswagen Polo
The Volvo 760 was a large, Swedish saloon and estate car produced between 1982 and 1990. The Volvo 760 saloon model was produced with 2.3, 2.4 and 2.8 litre engines in petrol and diesel models. Research Volvo 760
Voyeurism is the act of obtaining sexual stimulation from secretly observing people naked, or while they are having sex. Voyeurs are frequently called a 'peeping Tom'. Research Voyeurism
The Probert Encyclopaedia was designed, edited and programed by
Matt and Leela Probert
Abbreviations
General Information
Research Vagrancy
