Cadwalader was an ancient king of Gwynedd, succeeding his father as king in 634. He heroically defended Wales against the Saxons before his death in 664. Research Cadwalader
Cadwallader Colden Washburn was an American politician. He was born in 1818 and died in 1882. He was the brother of Elihu Washburne. He settled in Wisconsin as a lawyer and financier. From 1855, to 1861 he was Congressman from Wisconsin. He was a delegate to the Peace Conference of 1861. In the American Civil War he commanded a corps, was major-general of volunteers, and served in the West. He was again a Republican Congressman 1867 until 1871, and Governor of Wisconsin from 1872 until 1874. Research Cadwallader C. Washburn
Cadwallader Colden was the first surveyor-general of New York. He was born in 1688 and died in 1776. He was an ardentroyalist, was president of the council in 1760 and Lieutenant-Governor in 1761, took an active part in founding the American Philosophical Society, and was a correspondent of the prominent scientific men of his time, including Linnaeus and Benjamin Franklin. Research Cadwallader Colden
Caedmon was an Anglo-Saxon writer. He lived about the end of the 7th century. He was originally a tenant, or perhaps only a cowherd, on the abbey lands at Whitby, but afterwards was received into the monastery. His chief work (if it can all be attributed to him) consists of paraphrases of portions of the Scriptures, in Anglo-Saxon verse, the first part of which bears striking resemblances to Milton's narrative in Paradise Lost. Research Caedmon
Caesar was a title, originally a surname of the Julian family at Rome, which, after being dignified in the person of the dictator Caius Julius Caesar, was adopted by the successive Roman emperors, and latterly came to be applied to the heir-presumptive to the throne. The title was perpetuated in the Kaiser of the Holy Roman Empire, and in the Czar of the Russian emperors. Research Caesar
Ceasar Germanicus was a distinguished Roman. The son of NeroClaudiusDrusus and the younger Antonia, a niece of Augustus, he was born in 15 BC and died in 19 AD. He was adopted by Tiberius, his paternal uncle, and married Agrippina, the granddaughter of Augustus. When Augustus died, in 14 AD, Germanicus was invited by the rebellious legions on the Rhine to assume the sovereignty, but refused, and quelled the revolt. He then crossed the Rhine, surprised and defeated the Marsi with great slaughter. Next year a campaign against the Catti and the Germans, led by Arminius, resulted in a series of victories. The following year he again made his way into Germany, defeated the Cherusci twice, and made an incursion into the country of the Marsi. Tiberius now became jealous of the glory of Germanicus, called him home under pretence of granting him a triumph, then, to get rid of him, sent him into the East to compose the disturbances in Armenia and Cappadocia. This he performed in 18 AD, visited Egypt the following year, and died on his return to Syria under some suspicion of having been poisoned by Cn. Piso, the governor of Syria. Research Caesar Germanicus
Caesar Rodney was an American politician. He was born in 1728 and died in 1784. He was a delegate from Delaware to the Stamp Act Congress at New York in 1765. He was Speaker of the DelawareAssembly from 1769 to 1774, and of the Delaware popular Convention in 1774. He was a member of the Continental Congress from 1774 to 1776, was a member of the committee to draft a statement of rights and grievances, and signed the American Declaration of Independence. He served under General George Washington in the Delawarecampaign from 1776 to 1777, and was president of Delaware from 1778 to 1782.
Caesar A Rodney was an American politician. He was born in 1772 and died in 1824. He represented Delaware in the US Congress as a Democrat from 1803 to 1805. He was Attorney-General in Jefferson's and Madison's Cabinets from 1807 to 1811. As commissioner to South America in 1817 he advocated the recognition of the Spanish-American republics. He was a US Congressman from 1821 to 1822 and a US Senator from 1822 to 1823. He was appointed Minister to the Argentine provinces in 1823. Research Caesar Rodney
The Cagots were a peculiar race of people inhabiting southern France, in the Western Pyrenees. In the middle ages they were believed to be cannibals and heretics, and treated with the greatest ignominy. By the start of the 20th century they were legally on a level with other Frenchmen, but socially they were still regarded as degraded. The Cagots were so named being supposed to be descended from lepers. Research Cagots
Caius Flaminius was a Roman general. He was tribune in 232 BC, praetor in 227, consul in 223, censor in 220, and again consul in 217. He had a triumph for defeating the Insubrian Gauls; and during his second consulship he constructed the Flaminian Way and built a circus. In 217 he was sent against Hannibal into Etruria, and was defeated and killed in the battle of Lake Thrasymenus . Research Caius Flaminius
Caius Velleuis Paterculus was an ancient Roman historian. He was born about 19 BC and died about 31 AD. He served under Tiberius in Germany as commander of the cavalry, and in the first year of that emperor's reign was nominated praetor. Nothing further is known of him except that he composed a compendium of Roman history to the year 80 AD in two books, of which the beginning and a portion following the eighth chapter of the first book are missing. Research Caius Paterculus
Caius Asinius Pollio was a Roman of plebeian family. He was born in 76 BC and died in 4 AD. He took a prominent part in the civil war, and accompanied Julius Caesar to Pharsalia, and then to the African and Spanish wars. After obtaining the consulship he commanded in Illyria and Dalmatia, and for his victories was honoured with a triumph in 39 BC. He afterwards devoted most of his time to literary pursuits, but acted both as a senator and an advocate. His works, consisting of speeches, tragedies, and a history of the civil war in seventeen books, have all been lost. He was the friend of Virgil and Horace, and founded the first public library in Rome. Research Caius Pollio
Caius Silius surnamed Italians was a celebrated orator and advocate at Rome. He was born in the reign of Tiberius, about the year 25 AD. He was consul at the time of Nero's death, and proconsul of Asia under Vespasian. Being seized with an incurable ulcer, he starved himself to death at the age of 75. The only work of Silius which has reached modern times is an epicpoem on the Second Punic War. Research Caius Silius
Caius SuetoniusTranquillus was a Roman writer. The son of a military tribune, he lived about 100 AD. Little is known of the circumstances of his life. He distinguished liimself as an advocate, and enjoyed the patronage of the younger Pliny. He became secretary (magister espistolarum) to the Emperor Hadrian, but was dismissed on account of his affair with the EmpressSabina. His chief work, Vitae Duodecim Caesarum (Lives of the Twelve Csesars), gives an interesting account of the private life and personal character of the twelve first Roman emperors from Julius Caesar to Domitian, and is of great value to us from the light which it throws on domestic manners and customs. Research Caius Suetonius
Caius Cornelius Tacitus was a Roman historian. He was born in 55 and died about 120. Of his education and early life we know little. He seems to have been first appointed to public office in the reign of Vespasian. Under Titus, by whom he was treated with distinguished favour, he became quaestor or sedile; was praetor under Domitian (88 AD), and consul under Nerva (97 AD). In 78 he married the daughter of Cneius Julius Agricola, the celebrated statesman and general, whose life he afterwards wrote. He was several years absent from Rome on provincial business, and probably then made the acquaintance of the German peoples. After his return to Rome he lived in the closest intimacy with the younger Pliny, and had a very extensive practice in the profession of law, acquiring a high reputation as an orator. The time of his death is uncertain; but it probably took place about 120 AD.
We have four historical works from his pen: his Annals, in sixteen books (of which books seventh to tenth inclusive are lost), which contain an account of the principal events in Roman history from the death of Augustus (14 AD) to that of Nero (68 AD); his History (of which only four books and a part of the fifth are extant), which begins with the year 69 AD, when Galba wore the purple, and ends with the accession of Vespasian (70); his Germany, an account of the geography, manners, etc, of the country; and his Life of Agricola. The works of Caius Tacitus have been pronounced, by the unanimous voice of his contemporaries and of posterity, to be masterpieces in their way. His style is exceedingly concise, so much so as to make it often difficult to gather his full meaning without great care. He had a wonderful insight into character, and could paint it with a master's hand. A high moral tone pervades all his writings. Research Caius Tacitus
Calamity Jane (real name Martha Jane Burke) was an American frontierswoman. She was born in 1852, possibly at Princeton, Missouri and died in 1903. Renowned for her riding and shooting skills, she was nicknamed 'Calamity' on account of her reputation of threatening 'calamity' upon any man who tried to court her. Research Calamity Jane
Caleb Cushing was an American politician. He was born in 1800 and died in 1879. Educated at Harvard he rose to eminence at the Massachusettsbar. He was a Representative from Massachusetts in Congress in 1835 until 1843, having been a Whig and, from Tyler's time, a Democrat. He was a US Commissioner to China, a brigadier-general during the Mexican War, and an unsuccessful candidate for Governor of Massachusetts. From 1853until 1857 he was a member of Pierce's Cabinet as Attorney-General. In 1860 he presided over the democratic National Convention which met at Charleston. His high reputation as a lawyer led to his appointment as US counsel before the Geneva Tribunal of 1872, and to his nomination by Grant as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, though he failed in confirmation of the office and was sent as US minister to Spain in 1874 where he remained until 1877. Research Caleb Cushing
Caleb Strong was an American politician. He was born in 1745 and died in 1819. He was a member of the Massachusetts Committee of Correspondence and Safety from 1774 to 1775, and of the Massachusetts general court from 1776 to 1778. He aided in drafting the State constitution in 1779. He was a member of the MassachusettsSenate from 1780 to 1789. In 1787 he was a member of the convention that framed the Constitution of the United States. He was a Federalist US Senator from 1789 to 1796, and Governor of Massachusetts from 1800 to 1807 and from 1812 to 1816. Research Caleb Strong
The calenders were a sect of dervishes in Turkey and Persia. They preached in the market places, and lived upon alms. Their name was derived from their founder. Research Calenders
Caligula (real name Caius Caesar Augustus Germanicus) was a Roman Emperor. He was born in 12 at the camp of Antium and died in 41. He was the son of Germanicus and Agrippina. He received from the soldiers the surname of Caligula, on account of his wearing the caligae, a kind of boots in use among them. He succeeded Tiberius in 37, and made himself very popular by his mildness and ostentatious generosity; but at the end of eight months he was seized with a disorder, caused by his irregular mode of living, which appears to have permanently deranged his intellect. After his recovery, he suddenly showed himself the most cruel and unnatural of tyrants - reputedly a monster of debauchery and prodigality, a perpetrator of the greatest crimes and follies. The most exquisite tortures inflicted on the innocent served him for enjoyments. In the madness of his arrogance he even considered himself a god, and caused sacrifices to be offered to himself. One of his greatest follies was the building of a bridge between Baiae and Puteoli (Puzzuoli), in order that he might be able to boast of marching over the sea on dry land. He projected expeditions to Gaul, Germany and Britain, and having reached the sea, he ordered his soldiers gather shells for spoils, and then led them back to Borne. At last a band of conspirators put an end to his career by assassinating him. Research Caligula
Caliph, or calif or khalif (vicegerent) is the name assumed by the successors of Mohammed in the government of the faithful and in the high-priesthood. Caliphate is therefore the name given to the empire of these princes which the Arabs founded in Asia, and enlarged, within a few centuries, to a dominion exceeding even the Roman empire in extent. The appellation of caliph has long ago been swallowed up in Shah, Sultan, Emir, and other titles peculiar to the East.
Mohammed having died without naming his successor, three rival parties appeared immediately after his death. The first was headed by Omar, a kinsman of the prophet, who demanded the election of Abu Bekr, Mohammed's father-in-law. The second party was headed by Ali, the husband of Fatima, the prophet's daughter, who declared for himself. The third party consisted of people of Medina, who demanded the election of one of themselves. Abu Bekr was chosen in 632, and prosecuting the conquest of Syria, he defeated the Byzantine emperor Heraclius and took Damascus. His successor, Omar, completed the conquest of Syria, took Jerusalem, subjugated Egypt, and defeated the Persians. He is said to have erected over 1500 mosques. He was succeeded by Othman, or Osman, who completed the conquest of Persia and other Eastern countries, extended his dominion in Africa, and took Cyprus and Rhodes. Othman was succeeded by Ali, who is regarded as the first legitimate possessor of the dignity by a numerous sect of Mohammedans, which gives him and his son, Hassan, almost equal honour with the prophet. During his reign a great schism divided the Mohammedans into two sects called the Sunnites and the Shiites, the former acknowledging the authority of all the caliphs, the latter acknowledging only Ali and his descendants.
Ali was murdered in 660, and his son Hassan in 661, when Moawiyah, the founder of the dynasty of the Ommiyades, became caliph, and transferred his capital from Medina to Damascus. His army continued the conquest of Northern Africa, and twice unsuccessfully attacked Constantinople (Istanbul). Carthage was taken in 698, after which the Mohammedans encountered no serious opposition in Northern Africa.
From the union of the Arabic and Berber races of Africa sprung the Moors of Saracenic history. The conquest of Spain immediately followed, Tarik, the lieutenant of the Saracen general, Musa, having totally defeated the King of the Goths. The caliphate now extended from the Oxus and Indus to the Atlantic. In 732 a great host of Islamic soldiers crossed the Pyrenees and invaded France, but were totally defeated at Tours by Charles Martel. In 755 the Mohammedan dominion split up into the Eastern and Western Caliphates, the western caliph having Spain, with his capital at Cordova; and the eastern including Northern Africa, with the capital at Bagdad. The former was ruled by a series of Ommiyade caliphs; the latter by the dynasty of the Abbasides.
The most celebrated of the Abbaside caliphs of Bagdad was Haroun al Rashid (Aaron the Just), 786-808, under whom learning, science, and art were in a flourishing state. Subsequently the Islamic kingdom lost province after province, and the temporal authority of the caliph of Bagdad was destroyed. Numerous independent dynasties were set up, the most important of which was that of the Fatimites, founded by an African Saracen who claimed descent from Fatima the daughter of the prophet.
This dynasty conquered Sicily and several parts of Italy, Egypt, and Palestine. It came to an end in 1171. In 1031 the Western Caliphate ceased, and the Saracenic dominions in Spain was broken up into several small states. The most brilliant period of the Western Caliphate was in the 9th and 10th centuries, when literature, science, and art were in more flourishing condition than anywhere else in Europe. The Eastern Caliphate lingered on until 1258, when Bagdad was taken and sacked by the Mongols. Research Caliph
The Calixtines or Utraquists were, a sect of Hussites in Bohemia, who published their confession in 1421, the leading article of which was a demand to partake of the cup (calix) as well as of the bread in the Lord's Supper, from which they received their name of Utraquists (from the Latin uterque, both). Their tenets were conceded by the articles of Basel in 1433, and they became the predominant party in Bohemia. The name Calixtine is also given to a follower of Georg Calixtus. Research Calixtines
Calixto Garcia was a Cuban soldier and patriot. He was born in 1836 and died in 1898. He rebelled against the Spaniards in 1880 and was captured and deported to Spain where he was imprisoned for fifteen years until he escaped on the outbreak of the last rebellion in 1895. Research Calixto Garcia
Calixtus I. was pope. He was elected in 1119, in the monastery of Clugny, successor of the expelled pope, Gelasius II, who had been driven from Italy by the Emperor Henry V, and had died in this monastery. He excommunicated the Emperor Henry V on account of a dispute respecting the right of investiture; as also the anti-pope Gregory VIII, whom he drove from Home. He availed himself of the troubles of the emperor to force him, in 1122, to agree to the Concordat of Worms. He died in 1124. Research Calixtus II
Calixtus III was a pope. He was chosen in 1168 in Rome, as anti-pope to Paschal III, and confirmed by the Emperor Frederick I, in 1178, was obliged to submit to PopeAlexander III. As he was not counted among the legal popes, a subsequent pope, Alfonso Borgia, made pope in 1455, was also called Calixtus III He died in 1458. Research Calixtus III
Callisthenes was a Greek philosopher and historian. He was a native of Olynthus and was appointed to attend Alexander in his expedition against Persia. His expressed disapprobation of the conduct of Alexander incurred the displeasure of the courtiers and royal favourites, and he was put to death on a pretended charge of treason in 328 BC. He wrote a History of the Actions of Alexander, and other historical works. Research Callisthenes
Callmiachus was a Greek poet and grammarian. He was born at Cyrene, in Libya, of a noble family and lived about 250 BC. He taught at Alexandria, and was appointed by Ptolemy Philadelphus librarian of the AlexandrineMuseum. He wrote an epicpoem called Galatea, several prose works, and tragedies, elegies, comedies, etc, but only some seventy-two epigrams and six hymns remain.
Callmiachus was a Greek architect and artist. He lived about 400 BC, and was the reputed originator of the Corinthian column. Research Callmiachus
The Calottists were a satirical society founded in 1702 by Aymon and Torsac, of Louis XIV's bodyguard, and deriving its name from the calotte, a small cap worn by priests to conceal their tonsure. The society was transformed into a military institution around the middle of the 18th century and was finally suppressed at the revolution. Research Calottists
Calouste Sarkis Gulbenkian was a British industrialist. He was born in 1869 in Turkey and died in 1955. He endowed the international Gulbenkian Foundation for the advancement of the arts, science, and education. Research Calouste Gulbenkian
The Caloyers are Greek monks, belonging to the order of St Basil, who lead a very austere life. Their most celebrated monastery in Asia is at MountSinai; in Europe at MountAthos. They do not all agree as to their mode of life. Some of them are cenobites; that is, they live in common. Others are anchorites, living alone, or with only one or two companions; and others again are recluses, who live in grottoes or caverns in the greatest retirement, and are supported lyalms supplied to them by the monasteries. Research Caloyer
Calpurnius Siculus was a Roman poet of the first century AD. His works consist of seven eclogues closely imitating those of Virgil. Research Calpurnius Siculus
Calvin Coolidge was the 30th president of the USA. He was born in 1872 and died in 1933. As president, Coolidge opposed tariff revision and abstention from the League of Nations. He retired in 1929. Research Calvin Coolidge
Calvin E Stowe was an American educationalist and abolitionist. He was born in 1802 and died in 1886. He was professor of Biblical literature at Lane Seminary from 1830 to 1850, and at AndoverSeminary from 1852 to 1864. He was sent by Ohio to examine the European school system in 1836. Research Calvin Stowe
The Camaldolites Camadulians or Camaldunians were a fraternity of monks founded in the Yale of Camaldoli in the Apennines in 1018, by St Romuald, a Benedictinemonk. They were originally hermits, but as their wealth increased they associated in convents. They were always distinguished for their extreme asceticism, their rules in regard to fasting, silence, and penances being most severe. Like the Benedictines they wore white robes. Research Camaldolites
Cambyses was king of Persia. He succeeded his father Cyrus the Great in 529 BC and reigned until 521 BC. His great achievement was the conquest of Egypt in 525 BC. He treated the Egyptians and their religion with great severity, slaying the bullApis, their god, with his own hands. He also ruled the Persians tyrannically and had his brother Smerdis murdered. A magician led a revolt impersonating the dead brother and on his way to quell it, Cambyses died in Ecbatana a town in media of an accidental wound. Research Cambyses
The Cameronians were a sect of Scottish Presbyterians, originating in the latter part of the 17th century and deriving their name from their chief leader, Richard Cameron, who, along with his colleagues, John Semple, Alexander Peden, and John Welwood separated themselves from the Presbyterians of Scotland on the question of the spiritual independence of the Church. They were suppressed by the government, and a party were surprised at Aird's Moss by a group of dragoons who killed Richard Cameron and his brother. Research Cameronians
Camille de la Baume, Duc de Hostun, Comte de Tallard was a Marshal of France. He was born in 1652 and died in 1728. He entered the army young, and after serving under the Great Conde in Holland was engaged under Turenne in Alsace in the brilliant campaigns of 1674 and 1675. He distinguished himself subsequently on various occasions, and in 1693 was made lieutenant-general; marshal in 1703. In 1704 he was taken prisoner at the battle of Blenheim, and was carried to England, where he remained seven years. Research Camille de la Baume
Charles Camille Saint-Saens was a French composer. He was born in 1835 at Paris and died in 1921. Taught music at a young age, his first important composition was a cantata entitled Les Noces de Promethee, which gained the prize in the competition at the International Exhibition in 1867. His first opera was La Princesse Jeune, a one-act piece produced in 1872. Since then he won universal fame as a composer. His operas include Etienne Marcel (1879), Henry VIII (1883), Proserpine (1887), Ascanio (1890), Phryne (1893), and Les Barbares (1901). Among his other compositions are several oratorios, cantatas, symphonies, concertos for the pianoforte, violin, etc, orchestral suites, sonatas, songs, etc including Carnival of Animals. In 1893 he received the honorary degree of Doctor of Music from the university of Cambridge. Research Camille Saint-Saens
Count Camillo Benso di Cavour was an Italian statesman. He was born in 1810 at Turin and died in 1861. He was educated in the military academy at Turin, and after completing his studies he made a journey to England, where he remained for several years, making himself acquainted with the principles and working of the British constitution, and forming friendships with some of the most distinguished men.
He became a member of the Sardinian Chamber of Deputies in 1849, and the following year minister of commerce and agriculture. In 1852 he became premier, and not long afterwards took an active part in cementing an alliance with Great Britain and France, and making common cause with these powers against Russia during the Crimean War. The attitude, however, thus taken by Sardinia could not fail to prove offensive to Austria. A collision, therefore, was inevitable, resulting in the campaign of 1859. The intimate connection formed at that time with France, who lent her powerful assistance in the prosecution of the war, was mainly due to the agency of Camillo Cavour, who was accused by some on this occasion of having purchased the assistance of Napoleon III by unduly countenancing his ambitious projects.
In 1860 Garibaldi's expedition to Sicily took place; but towards this and the subsequent movements of the Italian liberator Camillo Cavour was forced to maintain an apparent coldness. He lived to see the meeting of the first Italian parliament, which decreed Victor Emmanuel king of Italy. Research Camillo Cavour
The Camisards were Calvinists in France (in the Cevennes), who, in the beginning of the 18th century, in consequence of the persecution to which they were exposed after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685, rose against the royal deputies. A large army was required to put them down (1702-1705), and great numbers were massacred, the French Catholic government of the time considering it a laudable work to suppress the Protestant heresy in this bloody manner. The name is from camise, a provincial form of French chemise, a shirt, because their ordinary outer garment was a kind of shirt or blouse. Research Camisards
The Camorra were a secret society in southern Italy which arose during the times of the Bourbon misgovernment in the former kingdom of Naples. It was mainly composed of poorer criminal classes which banded together to evade and defy the law, and included associates from the upper classes who carried on their lawless schemes with its aid. Its primary business was extortion, often on a large scale, and smuggling but it also carried out brigandage and more serious crimes. Research Camorra
The Campbells of Argyll are a historic Scottish family, raised to the peerage in the person of Sir Duncan Campbell of Lochow, in 1445. The more eminent members are: Archibald 2nd Earl, killed at the battle of Flodden, 1513.
Archibald , 5th Earl, attached himself to the party of Mary of Guise, and was the means of averting a collision between the Reformers and the French troops in 1559; was commissioner of regency after Mary's abdication, but afterwards commanded her troops at the battle of Langside; died in 1575.
Archibald, 9th Earl, son of the preceding, served the king with great bravery at the battle of Dunbar, and was excluded from the general pardon by Oliver Cromwell in 1654. On the passing of the Test Act in 1681 he refused to take the required oath except with a reservation. For this he was tried and sentenced to death. He, however, escaped to Holland, from whence he returned with a view of aiding the Duke of Monmouth. His plan, however, failed, and he was taken and conveyed to Edinburgh, where he was beheaded in 1685.
Archibald, 10th Earl and 1st Duke, son of the preceding, died in 1703 and took an active part in the Revolution of 1688-1689, which placed William and Mary on the throne, and was rewarded by several important appointments and the title of Duke.
John, 2nd Duke and Duke of Greenwich, son of the above, born in 1678, died in 1743; served under Marlborough at the battles of Ramilies, Oudenarde, and Malplaquet, and assisted at the sieges of Lisle and Ghent. He incurred considerable odium in his own country for his efforts in promoting the union. In 1712 he had the military command in Scotland, and in 1715 he fought an Indecisive battle with the Earl of Mar's army at Sheriffmuir, near Dunblane, and forced the Pretender to quit the kingdom. He was long a supporter of Walpole, but his political career was full of intrigue. He is the Duke of Argyll in Scott's Heart of Midlothian.
George DouglasCampbell, K.T., K.G, etc., 8th Duke (of United Kingdom, 1892), was born in 1823. He early took apart in politics, especially in discussions regarding the Presbyterian Church of Scotland. In 1852 he became lord privy seal under LordAberdeen, and again under LordPalmerston in 1859; postmaster-general in 1860; secretary for India from 1868 to 1874; again lord privy seal in 1880, but retired, being unable to agree with his colleagues on then-Irish policy. He died in 1900. He wrote The Reign of Law, Scotland as it Was and as it Is, etc. His eldest son, then Marquis Of Lorne, married the Princess Louise, daughter of Queen Victoria, in 1871. Research Campbells of Argyle
Campi was a family of Italian artists who founded what is known in painting as the school of Cremona. Of the four of this name, Giulio, Antonio, Vincenzo, and Bernardino, the first and the last are the best known. Giulio (1502-1572), the eldest and the teacher of the others, was a pupil of Giulio Romano, and acquired from the study of Titian and Pordenone a skill in colouring which gave the school its high place. Bernardino (1525-1590) was the greatest of the school. He took Romano, Titian, Correggio in succession as his models, but without losing his own individuality as an artist. Research Campi
Canaanites was the general name for the heathen peoples (Jebusites, Hittites, Amorites, etc) whom the Israelites found dwelling in Canaan (Palestine) west of the Jordan, and whom latterly they utterly subdued, though the subjugation was not quite complete until Solomon's time. They are believed to have been, in part at least, of kindred race with the Israelites; and some authorities find traces of their descendants among the present inhabitants of Palestine. Research Canaanites
A Canon is a church dignitary who possesses a prebend, or revenue allotted for the performance of divine service in a cathedral or collegiate church. Canons were formerly divided into canons regular, or those living a monastic life, and canons secular, those not so living. In England, besides the ordinary canons - who with the dean form the chapter - there are honorary canons and minor canons; the latter assist in the daily choral service of the cathedral. Of course these are all secular. Research Canon
Canonicus was an Indian chief, king of the Narragansetts. He was born about 1565 and died in 1647. He cordially received Roger Williams to his country and was ever friendly to the whites, but often at war with the Pequots. Research Canonicus
King Canute was a Viking King who ruled England from 1016 to 1035. When Canute became the undisputed King of England his rivals (Ethelred's surviving sons and Edmund's son) fled abroad. In 1018, the last Danegeld of 82,500 pounds was paid to Canute. Ruthless but capable, Canute consolidated his position by marrying Ethelred's widow Emma (Canute's first English partner - the Church did not recognise her as his wife - was set aside, later appointed regent of Norway).
During his reign, Canute also became King of Denmark and Norway; his inheritance and formidable personality combined to make him overlord of a huge northern empire. During his inevitable absences in Scandinavia, Canute used powerful English and Danish earls to assist in England's government - English law and methods of government remained unchanged. A second-generation Christian for reasons of politics as well as faith, Canute went on pilgrimage to Rome in from 1027 to 1028. (It was allegedly Christian humility which made him reject his courtiers' flattery by demonstrating that even he could not stop the waves; later hostile chroniclers were to claim it showed madness). Canute was buried at Winchester. Research Canute
Capet was the name of the French race of kings which gave 118 sovereigns to Europe: 36 kings of France, 22 kings of Portugal, 11 of Naples and Sicily, 5 of Spain, 3 of Hungary, 3 emperors of Constantinople, 8 kings of Navarre, 17 dukes of Burgundy, 12 dukes of Brittany, 2 dukes of Lorraine, and 4 dukes of Parma. The first of the Capets known in history was Robert the Strong, a Saxon made Count of Anjou by Charles the Bold, and afterwards duke of the Ile de France. His descendant, Hugh, son of Hugh the Great, was in 987 elected king of France in place of the Carlovingians. On the failure of the direct line at the death of Charles IV the French throne was kept in the family by the accession of the indirect line of Valois, and in 1589 by that of Bourbon. Capet being thus regarded as the family name of the kings of France, Louis XVI. was arraigned before the National Convention under the name of Louis Capet. Research Capet
The Capitanis were the hereditary chieftains of certain bands of Christian warriors who, about the beginning of the 16th century, retired to the mountain fastnesses of Northern Greece, where they maintained a kind of independence of the Turkish government, and supported themselves by predatory incursions on the neighbouring provinces. The Turks tried to organize them as a paid police, but with imperfect success; and in the struggle for Greek independence they not only formed an insurgent body of about 12,000 men, but furnished most of the Greek generals of that period - Odysseus, Karatasso, Marko Bozzaris, etc. Research Capitanis
Captain Alfred Dreyfus was a French officer falsely accused of espionage. He was born in 1859 at Mulhausen, Alsace and died in 1935. A captain of artillery and general staff-officer in the French army, he was born of a Jewish family. In October, 1894, he was arrested on a charge of communicating military documents to a foreign government, supposed to be Germany; and at a secret court-martial, which sat in December, he was condemned to public degradation and lifelong imprisonment. Early in 1895 he was sent to the the du Diable (Devil's Island), near Cayenne, to undergo his sentence, About the middle of the same yearColonel Picquart became head of the Intelligence Department, and in the course of his official duties he discovered various circumstances tending to throw doubt on the correctness of the court-martial's decision, and pointing to another officer, of the name of Esterhazy, as the real traitor. Picquart was superseded by a Colonel Henry in November, 1897, and in the following January Esterhazy, charged by a brother of the condemned man with having written the bordereau, or memorandum, which was the chief document relied on by the prosecutors of Alfred Dreyfus, was acquitted by a court-martial.
Two days later Zola, the eminent novelist, in a letter headed J'accuse published in the Aurore, made serious charges against the general staff and the government in connection with the Esterhazy court-martial. He was prosecuted, and condemned to pay a heavy fine and undergo a term of imprisonment. In June, 1898, Brisson succeeded Meline as primeminister, and next month Cavaignac, his war minister, read to the Chamber several documents which he regarded as conclusive proof of the guilt of Alfred Dreyfus. The chief of these was soon admitted by Colonel Henry to have been forged by him, and Cavaignac at once resigned.
In June, 1899, the Cour de Cassation ordered a fresh court-martial. Alfred Dreyfus was found guilty with extenuating circumstances, but the verdict was not generally regarded as in accordance with the evidence. He was sentenced to ten years' imprisonment, but was pardoned by President Loubet almost immediately. Several times during the case France seemed on the verge of revolution. Research Captain Alfred Dreyfus
Captain James Cook was an English sailor and explorer. He was born in 1728 and died in 1779, killed by the natives of Hawaii. The son of Yorkshire peasants, he was apprenticed to a shopkeeper, but acquiring a love of the sea became a sailor, joining the Royal Navy in 1755 and in 1759 becoming the sailing-master of the ship 'Mercury' which surveyed the St Lawrence River and the coast of Newfoundland.
Some observations on a solareclipse, communicated to the Royal Society, brought him into notice, and he was appointed commander of a scientific expedition to the Pacific, with the rank of lieutenant in the navy. During this expedition he successively visited Tahiti, New Zealand, discovered New South Wales, and returned by the Cape of Good Hope to Britain in 1771. In 1772 CaptainCook, now raised to the rank of a commander in the navy, commanded a second expedition to the Pacific and Southern Oceans, which resulted like the former in many interesting observations and discoveries. He returned to Britain in 1774.
Two years later he again set out on an expedition to ascertain the possibility of a north-west passage. On this voyage he explored the western coast of North America, and discovered the Sandwich Islands, on one of which, Hawaii, he was killed by the natives, on February the 14th, 1779. CaptainCook wrote and published a complete account of his second voyage of discovery, and an unfinished one of the third voyage, afterwards completed and published by Captain James King. Research Captain James Cook
Captain John Smith was an English explorer and historical writer. He was born in 1579 at Willoughby, Lincolnshire and died in 1631 or 1632. He fought against the Turks and was with Newport's expedition which founded Virginia in 1607, and on the return journey was imprisoned. Upon his release he became the practical head of Virginia colony. He explored the Chickahominy region and was taken prisoner by the Indian Powhatan, the tale of which forms the basis for the legend of Pocahontas - by his own account, CaptainJohn Smith recounts that he was released after the intercession of the PrincessPocahontas. In 1609 he had an accident and returned to England, and in 1614 was engaged in a voyage of discovery along the New England coast., and in 1617 engaged in a further voyage before retiring to London
He wrote voluminously, but is suspected of romantic exaggeration and colouring. His chief works were: 'A True Relation', 'Generall Historic of Virginia', and a 'Description of New England'. Research Captain John Smith
Capuchins are monks of the order of St Francis, so called from the capuchon or capuce, a stuff cap or cowl, the distinguishing badge of the order. They are clothed in brown or gray, go barefooted, and never shave their beard. Research Capuchins
Caradoc or Caractacus was a king of the ancient British people called Silures, inhabiting South Wales. He defended his country with great perseverance against the Romans, but was at last defeated, and led in triumph to Rome in 51 AD, after the war. His noble bearing and pathetic speech before the Emperor Claudius procured his pardon, but he and his relatives appear to have remained in Italy. Research Caradoc
Carausius was a Roman general. A native of Batavia, he was sent by the Emperor Maximian to defend the Atlantic coasts against the Franks and Saxons; but foreseeing impending disgrace, he landed in Britain and got himself proclaimed emperor by his legions in 287 AD. In this province he was able to maintain himself for six years, when he was assassinated at York by one of his officers named Allectus in 293 AD. Research Carausius
A Cardinal is an ecclesiastical prince in the Roman Catholic Church, who has a voice in the conclave at the election of a pope, the popes being taken from the cardinals. The cardinals are appointed by the pope, and are divided into three classes or orders, comprising six bishops, fifty priests, and fourteen deacons, making seventy at most. These constitute the Sacred College and compose the pope's council. Originally they were subordinate in rank to bishops; but they now have the precedence. The chief symbol of the dignity of cardinal is a low-crowned, broad-brimmed red hat, with two cords depending from it, one from either side, each having fifteen tassels at its extremity. Other insignia are a red biretta, a purple cassock, a sapphire ring, etc. Research Cardinal
Cardinal Ercole Consalvi was an Italian Cardinal who conducted many negotiations between the Papacy and Revolutionary France. He was born in 1757 and died in 1824. He negotiated the Concordat with Napoleon in 1801. He was later dismissed and exiled under pressure from Napoleon, but resumed his position after the Battle of Waterloo. Research Cardinal Ercole Consalvi
Henry Benedict Stewart (Cardinal Stewart) was a Jacobite prince and cardinal, and the last male of the royal house of Stewart. He was born in 1725 at Rome and died in 1807. The younger son of James Edward Stewart and the grandson of James II, his father made him duke of York. His life was passed mainly in Rome, though in 1745 he was with the French army intending to invadeEngland. In 1747 he took orders and was made a cardinal, popularly being known as cardinal of York.
In 1788, with the death of Charles Edward, he became king of Great Britain, according to legitimist ideas, and his supporters called him Henry IX. When the French invaded Italy in 1798 he was forced to leave Rome and lost his income, but he was made an allowance by George III. He returned to Rome in 1800 and lived there until his death. Research Cardinal Stewart
Carel Fabritius was a Dutch painter. He was born in 1614 and died in 1654 when he was killed in an explosion at Delft. He was a pupil of Rembrandt. Research Carel Fabritius
The Carijos were a south Brazilian people discovered by the Portuguese in the 16th century. They were a friendly and peaceful nation who were attacked by some of the Paolistas from Sao Vicente in 1585. In self-defence the Carijos wiped out the attackers. The Portuguese responded with perhaps the first recorded example of genocide, waging a war with the intention of deliberately wiping out the entire Carijo people, which they did. Research Carijos
Carl Jan Andersson was a Swedish explorer. He was born in 1827 and died in 1867 in the land of the Ovampos, in Western Africa. An explorer of Africa, he published LakeNgami, or Discoveries in South Africa and The Okavango River. Research Carl Andersson
Carl Gustav Jung was a Swiss scientist. He was born at Basle in 1875. He died in 1961. He is famous for developing a school of analytical psychology. Research Carl Gustav Jung
Carl Maria Friedrich Ernst von Weber was a German operatic composer. He was born in 1786 and died in 1826. He composed 'Der Freischutz' in 1821, 'Euryanthe' in 1823 and 'Oberon' in 1826. Research Carl Maria Von Weber
Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach (also spelled Karl Bach) was a German musician and composer. He was born in 1714 at Weimar and died in 1788. He was the third son of Johann Sebastian Bach and studied law before turning his attention to music and composed cantatas, passions, numerous keyboard and instrumental works. Research Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach
Carl Friedrich Plattner was a German metallurgist. He was born in 1800 and died in 1858. From 1842 until 1857 he held the professorship of metallurgy at Freiberg, and taught and experimented with great success. He is best known for his application of the blow-pipe to the quantitative assay of metals. Research Carl Plattner
Carl August Nicholas Rosa was an operatic impresario. He was born in Hamburg in 1843 and died in 1889. Research Carl Rosa
CARL ROSA
Carl August Nicholas Rosa was a German operatic impresario. He was born in 1843 at Hamburg and died in 1889. He entered the Leipzig Conservatorium in 1859, and came to England in 1866, when he performed at the Crystal Palace. In 1867 he married Madame Parepa, a singer, with whom he formed an opera company, which toured in the United States. In 1871 he returned to England, and in 1875 formed the famous Carl Rosa Opera Company, devoting himself to English opera. In this venture he proved very successful, and not only produced a number of foreign operas in English, but also encouraged English composers by producing their works. Research Carl Rosa
Carl Wilhelm Scheele (Karl Scheele) was a Swedish chemist. He was born in 1742 at Stralsund in Pomerania and died in 1786. He was apprenticed to an apothecary in Gothenburg, and after being employed successively in Maimo, Stockholm, and Upsala, he purchased an apothecary's business in Koping in 1777. Scheele is one of the greatest names in the history of chemistry. He isolated tartaric acid from cream of tartar, obtained fluosilicic acid from fluorspar, discovered oxygen (obtained from the black oxide of manganese) independently of and almost simultaneously with Priestley, and discovered also chlorine, baryta, benzoic acid, arseniuretted hydrogen, Scheele's green, sulphuretted hydrogen, molybdic acid, lactic acid, glycerine, tungstic acid, prussic acid, citric acid, malic acid, oxalic acid, gallic acid, etc. His chief published work is Air and Fire (published in 1777). Research Carl Scheele
Carl Johan Gustaf Snoilsky was a Swedish poet. He was born in 1841 and died in 1903. Educated at Upsala he was in the diplomatic service until 1879, when he started to devote his entire time to literature, having already made his name as a part-time poet and joined the Swedish Academy. Research Carl Snoilsky
Count Carl Gustav Tessin was a Swedish statesman. He was born in 1695 at Stockholm and died in 1770. The son of a distinguished architect, he was ambassador in Vienna in 1725 and was notable as one of the leaders of the Hat party. From 1739 until 1742 he was ambassador at the French court. Research Carl Tessin
Carlo Francesco Antommarchi was an Italian physician. He was born in 1780 at Corsica and died in 1838. He was professor of anatomy at Florence when he offered himself as physician of Napoleon at St Helena. Napoleon at first received him with reserve, but soon admitted him to his confidence, and testified his satisfaction with him by leaving him a legacy of 100,000 francs. On his return to Europe in 1823 he published the Derniers Moments de Napoleon in two volumes. Research Carlo Antommarchi
Carlo Cignani was an Italian painter. He was born in 1628 at Bologna and died in 1719. He was the last great painter of the Bolognese school. His finest paintings are frescoes in the saloon of the Farnese Palace, Bologna, and in the cupola of the Church of the Madonnadel Fuoco at Forli. His paintings have been engraved by various artists. Research Carlo Cignani
Carlo Giovanni Maria Denina was an Italian historian. He was born in 1731 at Revello, in Piedmont and died in 1813. He became professor at Pinerolo, and afterwards at Turin, where he published the three first volumes of his History of Italian Revolutions (1769), containing a general history of Italy. In 1777 he went to Rome, and four years later to Berlin, where he was welcomed by Frederick the Great, an account of whose life and reign he afterwards wrote. Most of his works - History of Piedmont, Political and Literary History of Greece, etc. - were written at Berlin. In 1804 he was introduced to Napoleon, who appointed him imperial librarian at Paris. Research Carlo Denina
Carlo Doici was a Florentine painter. He was born in 1616 at Florence and died in 1686. His works, principally heads of madonnas, saints, etc, have a character of sweetness and melancholy. Among his chief productions are St Cecilia at the Organ and Herodias with the Head of John the Baptist, and St Andrew in Prayer. Research Carlo Dolci
Carlo Farinelli (real name Carlo Broschi) was an Italian singer, He was born in 1705 at Naples and died in 1782. To develop his singing he was made a eunuch. He sung in Vienna, Paris, and London with the greatest success. On visiting Spain, where he intended only a brief sojourn, he found King Philip V plunged in a profound melancholy. He succeeded in rousing him from it by the powers of his voice, and became his prime favourite and political adviser. But the penalty of his advancement was that for ten years he had to sing every night to his royal master the same four airs. On his return to Italy, in 1762, he found himself almost forgotten, but continued to exercise a splendid hospitality in his country house, near Bologna. Research Carlo Farinelli
Carlo Goldoni was an Italian dramatist. He was born in 1707 at Venice and died in 1793 at Paris. Early in life he showed a taste for theatrical representations, and, when scarcely eight years of age, he ventured to sketch a comedy, which excited the wonder of his relatives. His father, who was a physician, intended that his son should follow the medical profession. But Carlo Goldoni, dissatisfied with this study, obtained permission to study law in Venice. Soon after, however, a relative procured for him a place in the Papal college at the University of Pavia, from which he was expelled for writing scurrilous satires.
After his father's death he settled as an advocate in Venice, but shortly took to a wandering life with strolling players, until in 1736 he married the daughter of a notary and settled down in Venice. Here he first began to cultivate that department of dramatic poetry in which he was to excel; namely description of character and manners. In this he took Moliere, whom he began to study about this time, for his model. For five years he visited various cities of Italy, composing pieces for different theatrical companies, and for a time renewing his legal practice. In 1761 the Italian players invited him to Paris, where many of his pieces met with uncommon applause. He became reader and master of the Italian language to the daughters of Louis XV and received latterly a pension of 3600 livres. At the breaking out of the French Revolution the poet lost his pension, and the decree of the national convention of the 7th of January, 1793, restoring it and making up the arrears, found him already dead. His widow received the arrears and a pension for herself. Many of his numerous pieces still retain possession of the stage in his native country, and, in translations, of the stages of foreign countries. Research Carlo Goldoni
Carlo Gozzi was an Italian dramatist. He was born in 1722 at Venice and died in 1806. His principal work consists of a series of dramas based on fairy tales, which obtained much popularity, and were highly praised by Goethe, Schlegel, De Stael, Sismondi, etc. Research Carlo Gozzi
Carlo Maratti was an Italian painter and engraver. He was born in 1625 and died in 1713. Louis XIV employed him to paint his celebrated picture of Daphne. Clement IX, whose portrait he painted, appointed him overseer of the Vatican gallery. He has been styled the last painter of the Roman school. His Madonnas were particularly admired. Research Carlo Maratti
Baron Carlo Marochetti was an Italian sculptor. He was born in 1805 at Turin and died in 1867. He studied under Bosio and in 1827 he settled in Paris where two years later he won a medal with his Young Girl playing with a Dog, his Fallen Angel likewise attracting attention, and in 1839 he received the Legion of Honour. Coming to England on account of the revolution in 1848 he became RA in 1866 and executed various statues. Research Carlo Marochetti
Carlo Poerio was an Italian statesman. He was born in 1803 at Naples and died in 1867. Like his father Giuseppe Poerio, he often opposed the actions of the Bourbon kings of Naples, and frequently devoted his talents as an advocate to the cause of political offenders. He thus became a suspect, and from 1837-1848 suffered various terms of imprisonment. The revolution of the latter year released him from prison and placed him at the head of the Neapolitanpolice, and of the ministry of public instruction, but, finding it impossible to get the Bourbons to fulfil their promises, he resigned. He sat in the new parliament and acted with the opposition. In July, 1849, he was arrested and condemned without defence to twenty-four years' imprisonment. The barbarous treatment he received in prison gave occasion to Gladstone's famous Two Letters to LordAberdeen, written in 1851 from Naples. In 1859 his sentence was commuted to transportation to South America; but he and his companions effected a landing at Cork in Ireland, and thence proceeded to London. In 1861 he was elected vice-president of the Italian chamber of deputies, and remained until his death one of the chiefs of the constitutional liberal party. Research Carlo Poerio
The Carlovingians were the second dynasty of the French or Frankish kings, which supplanted the Merovingians. They derived their name from Charles Martel or his grandson Charlemagne (that is, Karl or Charles the Great). Charles Martel (715-741) and his son Pepin (741-768) were succeeded by Charlemagne and his brother Carloman (768-771). Charlemagne became sole king in 771, and was succeeded in the Empire of the West by his son Louis le Debonnaire in 814. He divided his empire among his sons, and at his death in 840 his son Charles the Bald became king of France. He died in 877, and was succeeded by a number of feeble princes. The dynasty came to an end with Louis V, who died in 987. Research Carlovingians
Carmelites are mendicant friars of the order of Our Lady of Mount Carmel. From probably the 4th century holy men took up their abode as hermits on Mount Carmel in Syria, but it was not until about the year 1150 that pilgrims established an association for the purpose of leading a secluded life on this mountain, and so laid the foundation of the order. Being driven by the Saracens to Europe in 1247 they adopted all the forms of monastic life and a somewhat milder rule. In time they became divided into several branches, one of them distinguished by walking barefooted. The habit of the order is of a dark-brown colour, and over it when out of doors they wear a white cloak, with a hood to cover the head. Research Carmelites
Carneades was an ancient Greek philosopher and the founder of the third or new academy. He is supposed to have been born in 213 BC and died in 129 BC. Carneades held that although man has no infallible criterion of truth, yet we infer appearances of truth, which, as far as the conduct of life goes, are a sufficient guide. Carneades, along with Diogenes and Critolaus, went as an envoy from the Athenians to Rome to beg the mitigation of a fine, and so captivated the Roman people by his eloquence, delivering the one day a harangue in praise of justice, and on the next proving it to be an odious institution, that Cato, alarmed at the effect of such clever sophistry, persuaded the senate to send the philosophers back without delay. Research Carneades
The Carnutes were a tribe of Gauls who lived in the centre of ancient Gaul, between the Liger and the Sequana. Their capital was Genabum. Research Carnutes
Carol I was a king of Romania. He was born in 1839 and died in 1914. A prince of the house of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, he was invited to become Prince of Romania, then under Turkish suzerainty in 1866. In 1877, in alliance with Russia, he declared war on Turkey and the treaty of Berlin recognized Rumanian independence. In 1881 he was crowned king. Research Carol I
Carol II was a King of Romania. He was born in 1893 and died in 1952. A son of King Ferdinand, he married PrincessHelen of Greece, who bore him a son, Michael. In 1925 he renounced the succession, and settled in Paris with his mistress, Lupescu. Michael succeeded to the throne in 1927 but in 1930 Carol returned to Romania and was proclaimed king. In 1938 he introduced a new constitution under which he became practically absolute. He was forced to abdicate by the pro-German Iron Guard in September 1940, and withdrew to Mexico with Lupescu, whom he married in 194. Research Carol II
Caroline was a British queen. She was born in 1768 and died in 1821. She was a daughter of the Duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbuttel, and in 1795 she was married to the Prince of Wales, afterwards George IV. The marriage was not to his liking, and after the birth of the PrincessCharlotte he separated from her. Many reports were circulated against her honour, and a ministerial committee was formed to inquire into her conduct. But the people in general sympathized with her, regarding her as an ill-treated wife. In 1814 she made a journey through Germany, Italy, Greece, etc, to Jerusalem, in which an Italian, Bergami, was her confidant and attendant.
When the Prince of Wales ascended the throne in 1820 he offered her an income of 50,000 pounds on condition that she would never return to England. She refused, and in the June of same year entered London amid public demonstrations of welcome. The government now instituted proceedings against her for adultery, but the public feeling and the splendid defence of Brougham obliged the ministry to give up the Divorce Bill after it had passed the Lords. Though banished from the court, the queen now assumed a stylesuitable to her rank. Research Caroline
Caroline Clive was an English author. She was born in 1801 and died in 1873. She was an invalid for many years and wrote eight volumes entitled 'Poems by 'V' and 'Paul Ferroll'. Research Caroline Clive
Caroline Lucretia Herschel was a German-born English astronomer. She was born in 1750 at Hanover 1750 and, died in 1848. She joined her brother, william Herschel, at Bath in 1771, and acted during his life as his astronomicalassistant. She also found time to conduct a series of observations of her own. Her observations were published by the Royal Society, of which she was made an honorary member. On her brother's death she returned to Hanover. Research Caroline Herschel
Caroline Norton (CarolineSheridan) was an English poet and novelist. She was born in 1808 and died in 1877. In 1829 she married George Norton, but the marriage did not prove a happy one, and from 1836.she lived apart from her husband. After the death of the latter in 1875 she married Sir W Stirling-Maxwell. Her poems nearly all belong to the earlier part of her literary career. Her best novels are Stuart of Dunleath and Old Sir Douglas. Research Caroline Norton
Caroline Oliphant (Baroness Nairne) was a Scottish poet. She was born in 1766 and died in 1845. Belonging to the Oliphants of Gask, she married William Murray Nairne, who in 1824 became Baron Nairne. She was the author of some exceedingly popular songs, including The Laird o' Cockpen, The Land o' the Leal, The Auld House, etc. Research Caroline Oliphant
The Carpocratians were a sect of Gnostics of the second century, so called from Carpocrates, a prominent teacher of gnosticism. They maintained that only the soul of Christ went to heaven, that his body would have no resurrection and that the world was made by angels. Research Carpocratians
Carter Braxton was an American politician. He was born in 1736 and died in 1797. He was a member of the Virginia Legislature from 1761 until 1771, was one of the Virginia Committee of Safety, a delegate to the Continental Congress from 1775 until 1776 and a signatory of the American Declaration of Independence. He was a member of the Executive Council of Virginia from 1786 until 1791 and again from 1793 until 1797. Research Carter Braxton
The Carthaginians were a powerful Phoenician people based in the city of Carthage. Carthage was the most famous city of Africa in antiquity, capital of a rich and powerful commercial republic, situated in the territory now belonging to Libya. Carthage was the latest of the Phoenician colonies in this district, and is supposed to have been founded by settlers from Tyre and from the neighbouring Utica about the middle of the 9th century BC. The story of Dido and the foundation of Carthage is mere legend or invention.
The history of Carthage falls naturally into three epochs. The first, from the foundation to 410 BC, comprises the rise and culmination of Carthaginian power; the second, from 410 to 265 BC, is the period of the wars with the Sicilian Greeks; the third, from 265 to 146 BC, the period of the wars with Rome, ending with the fall of Carthage.
The rise of Carthage may be attributed to the superiority of her site for commercial purposes, and the enterprise of her inhabitants, which soon acquired for her an ascendency over the earlier Tyrian colonies in the district, Utica, Tunis, Hippo, Septis, and Hadrumetum, Her relations with the native populations, Libyans and nomads, were those of a superior with inferior races. Some of them were directly subject to Carthage, others contributed large sums as tribute, and Libyans formed the main body of infantry as nomads of cavalry in the Carthaginian army. Besides these there were native Carthaginian colonies, small centres and supports for her great commercial system, sprinkled along the whole northern coast of Africa, from Cyrenaica on the east to the Straits of Gibraltar on the west.
In extending her commerce Carthage was naturally led to the conquest of the various islands which from their position might serve as entrepots for traffic with the northern shores of the Mediterranean. Sardinia was the first conquest of the Carthaginians, and its capital, Caralis, now Cagliari, was founded by them. Soon after they occupied Corsica, the Balearic, and many smaller islands in the Mediterranean. When the Persians under Xerxes invaded Greece the Carthaginians, who had already several settlements in the west of Sicily, co-operated by organizing a great expedition of 300,000 men against the Greek cities in Sicily. But the defeat of the Carthaginians at Himera by the Greeks under Gelon of Syracuse effectually checked their further progress (480 BC).
The war with the Greeks in Sicily was not renewed until 410. Hannibal, the son of Gisco, invaded Sicily, reduced first Selinus and Himera, and then Agrigentum. Syracuse itself was only saved a little later by a pestilence which enfeebled the army of Himiico (396). The struggle between the Greeks and the Carthaginians continued at intervals with varying success, its most remarkable events being the military successes of the Corinthian Timoleon (345-340) at Syracuse, and the invasion of the Carthaginian territory in Africa by Agathocles in 310 BC. After the death of Agathocles the Greeks called in Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, to their aid, but notwithstanding numerous defeats (277-275 BC), the Carthaginians seemed, after the departure of Pyrrhus, to have the conquest of all Sicily at length within their power. The intervention of the Romans was now invoked, and with their invasion in 264 BC, the third period of Carthaginian history begins.
The first Punic war in which Rome and Carthage contended for the dominion of Sicily, was prolonged for twenty-three years, from 264 to 241 BC, and ended, through the exhaustion of the resources of Carthage, in her expulsion from the island. The loss of Sicily led to the acquisition of Spain for Carthage, which was almost solely the work of Hamilcar and Hasdrubal. The second Punic war, arising out of incidents connected with the Carthaginian conquests in Spain, and conducted on the side of the Carthaginians by the genius of Hannibal, and distinguished by his great march on Rome and the victories of Lake Trasimene, Trebia, and Cannae, lasted seventeen years, from 218 to 201 BC, and after just missing the overthrow of Rome, ended in the complete humiliation of Carthage. The policy of Rome in encouraging the African enemies of Carthage occasioned the third Punic war, in which Rome was the aggressor. This war, begun in 150 BC, and ended in 146 BC, resulted in the total destruction of Carthage.
The constitution of Carthage, like her history, remains in many points obscure. The name of king occurs in the Greek accounts of it, but the monarchical constitution, as commonly understood, never appears to have existed in Carthage. The officers called kings by the Greeks were two in number, the heads of an oligarchical republic, and were otherwise called Suffetes, the original name being considered identical with the Hebrew Shofetim, judges. These officers were chosen from the principal families, and were elected annually. There was a senate of 300, and a smaller body of thirty chosen from the senate, sometimes another smaller council of ten. In its later ages the state was divided by bitter factions, and liable to violent popular tumults. After the destruction of Carthage her territory became the Roman province of Africa.
Twenty-four years after her fall an unsuccessful attempt was made to rebuild Carthage by Caius Gracchus. This was finally accomplished by Augustus, and Roman Carthage became one of the most important cities of the empire. It was taken and destroyed by the Arabs in 638. The religion of the Carthaginians was that of their Phoenician ancestors. They worshipped Moloch or Baal, to whom they supposedly offered human sacrifices; Melkart, the patron deity of Tyre; Astarte, the Phoenician Venus, and other deities, which were mostly propitiated by allegedly cruel or lascivious rites, though these accounts are most likely exagerated propaganda by enemies of the Carthaginians. Research Carthaginians
The Carthusians were a religious order instituted by Saint Bruno in 1084. He built several hermitages four leagues from Grenoble in south-east France, and, with six companions, united the ascetic with the monastic life. They practised the greatest abstinence, wore coarse garments, and ate only vegetables and the coarsest bread. From their original seat they were called Carthusians. Their fifth general, Guigo (died 1137), prescribed, besides the usual monastic vows, eternal silence and solitude. In the following centuries they received additional statutes, which forbade altogether the eating of flesh, and allowed them to speak only during certain hours on Thursdays and the days on which the chapter met. With increasing wealth some modifications were introduced in their silent and solitary life. Their habit is a hair-cloth shirt, a white tunic, a black cloak, and a cowl. The Carthusians were introduced into England about 1180, and built the Charterhouse (a name corrupted from Chartreuse) in 1371. Their chief house was long La Grande Chartreuse. Research Carthusians
Giovanni Giacomo de Seingalt Casanova was a Venetian adventurer. He was born in 1725 and died in 1798. He travelled Europe's capitals frequenting the most aristocratic society and living a generally rakish life. He is known by his Memoirs as an adventurer who acted a prominent part in all situations, amongst all classes of society, and in all the large cities of Europe, by turns acting the part of diplomatist, preacher, abbot, lawyer, and charlatan. Among others with whom he came in contact were Rousseau, Voltaire, Suvaroff, Frederick the Great, and Catherine II. His celebrated Memoirs are a lively picture of the manners of his times, but probably not very veracious. Research Casanova
The Cashibos are a tribe of Peruvian Indians of very light complexion and reputedly beautiful women. They were formerly notorious for eating the old and infirm of their tribe. Research Cashibos
Casimir III (Casimiri the Great) was a King of Poland. He was born in 1309 and ascended the throne in 1333. He conquered Little Russia, Silesia, and repelled the Tartars. He protected the peasants with much energy, and out of favour for one of his mistresses who was a Jewess, conferred valuable privileges on the Jews. After his death the crown of Poland was recognized as elective. Research Casimir III
Casimir Perier was a French statesman. He was born in 1777 at Grenoble and died in 1831 of cholera. Educated at Lyons, he served with honour in the campaigns of Italy (1799 and 1800). In 1802 he established a prosperous banking-bouse in company with his brother. In 1817 he was elected to represent the department of the Seine in the Chamber of Deputies. Here he became one of the leaders of the opposition under Charles X, and was no less distinguished as the firm and eloquent advocate of constitutional principles than as an enlightened and sagacious financier. After the revolution of 1830 he was prime-minister to Louis Philippe from March 13th, 1831, to his death by cholera on May the 16th, 1832. Research Casimir Perier
Cassander wasa king of Macedonia. He was born about 354 BC AND DIED IN 297 BC. He displaced his brother Polysperchon in the regency, removed in succession the mother, the wife, and the son of Alexander the Great to make way for himself to the throne. He married Thessalonica, Alexander's half-sister, and founded the city of that name in her honour. In company with Seleucus, Ptolemy, and Lysimachus he defeated and slew Antigonus, king of Asia, whose dominions were divided amongst the conquerors. Research Cassander
Magnus Aurelius Cassiodorus was a Roman writer. He was born in the latter half of the 5th century AD. He became chief minister of the Ostrogoth king Theodoric, and wrote a collection of letters, Variarum Epistolarmn Libri XII., which contain most valuable information with regard to the Ostrogothic rule in Italy. He wrote also a History of the Goths. Research Cassiodorus
Caius Cassius Longinus was a Roman soldier. He was one of the assassins of Julius Caesar. In the civil war that broke out between Pompey and Caesar he espoused the cause of the former, and, as commander of his naval forces, rendered him important services. After the battle of Pharsalia he was apparently reconciled with Caesar, but later was amongst the more active of the conspirators who assassinated him in 44 BC. He then, together with Brutus, raised an army, but they were met by Octavianus and Antony at Philippi. The wing which Cassius commanded being defeated, he imagined that all was lost, and killed himself in 42 BC. Research Cassius
Cassivellaunus was a British King, ruling north of the Thames, who offered a valiant defence to Julius Caesar during his second invasion of 54 BC. However, he was forced to capitulate and promised to pay a yearly tribute to Caesar and provide hostages. Research Cassivellaunus
The Catauxis are a tribe of cannibal Indians living in western Brazil. They go naked and wear bangles of twisted hair on their wrists and ankles, use blowpipes and poisoned arrows in war and the hunt. As well as hunting they also farm and produce pottery decorated with geometric patterns. Research Catauxis
Catechumens was a name originally applied to those converted Jews and heathens in the first ages of the Christian church who were to receive baptism and had a particular place in the church, but were not permitted to share the sacrament. Afterwards it was applied to young Christians who, for the first time, wished to partake of this ordinance, and for this purpose went through a preparatory course of instruction. Research Catechumens
Cathari is a name akin to Puritans, applied at different times to various sects of Christians. It became a common appellation of several sects which first appeared in the llth century in Lombardy and afterwards in other countries of the West, and which were violently persecuted for their alleged Manichean tenets and usages. They had many other local names. Thus from their relation to the BulgarianPaulicians they were sometimes termed Bulgarians. In Southern France, when they were mostly prosperous, they were confounded with the Albigenses, and were exterminated with them. The Cathari proper were dualists, of a type closely related to the older Gnostics, held a community of goods, abstained from war, marriage, and the killing of animals, and rejected water-baptism. They professed to strive after a higher life than that embodied in the ordinary religious ideals. Research Cathari
Catharine Grace Gore was an English novelist. She was born in 1799 and died in 1861. In 1823 she was married to Charles Arthur Gore of the 1st Life Guards, and shortly afterwards appeared her first novel, Theresa Marchmont, or the Maid of Honour. She wrote altogether from 60 to 70 novels, clever pictures of fashionable life, among the best of which are Preferment; the Courtier of the days of Charles II; Cecil, or the Adventures of a Coxcomb; The Hamiltons; The Banker's Wife; Pin Money; Peers and Parvenues; and Temptation and Atonement. She was also the author of a tragedy, LordDacre of the South; and a successful comedy, A Quid pro Quo. Research Catharine Gore
Catharine Theot was a French visionary. She was born in 1725 at Avranches and died in 1795. She decided that she was the mother of God and changed her name to Theos. She preached in Paris in 1794 and declared that Robespierre was the forerunner of the word. The Comite de la Surete Generale had her arrested, and she was executed by guillotining. Research Catharine Theot
Catherine de Medici (Catharine de Medici) was the wife of Henry II, King of France. She was born in 1519 at Florence and died in 1589. She was the only daughter of Lorenzo de Medici, duke of Urbino, and the niece of Pope Clement VII. She was married to the Duke of Orleans, afterwards Henry II, in 1533, but had little or no influence at the French court either during the reign of her husband, who was under the influence of his mistress Diana de Poitiers, or during the reign of her eldest son, Francis II, who, in consequence of his marriage with Mary Stuart, was devoted to the party of the Guises. The death of Francis II placed the reins of government, during the minority of her son Charles IX, in her hands. Wavering between the Guises on one side, who had put themselves at the head of the Catholics, and Conde and Coligny on the other, who had become very powerful by the aid of the Protestants, she played off one faction against the other in the hope of increasing her own power; and the thirty years of civil war which followed were mainly due to her. Her influence with Charles IX was throughout of the worst kind, and the massacre of St Bartholomew's Day was largely her work. After the death of Charles IX, in 1574, her third son succeeded as Henry III, and her mischievous influence continued. She died in 1589, shortly before the assassination of Henry III. Of her two daughters, Elizabeth married Philip II of Spain, and Margaret of Valois married Henry of Navarre, afterwards Henry IV. Research Catherine de Medici
Catherine de Vivonne, Marquise de Rambouillet was an Italian-born French socialite. She was born in 1588 at Rome and died in 1665. In 1600, when only twelve years old, she married Charles d'Angennes, son of the Marquis de Rambouillet, to whose title and estates he succeeded on the death of the latter in 1611. Her residence at Paris, the Hotel Rambouillet, for more than fifty years formed the centre of a circle which exercised great influence on French language, literature, and civilization. Her circle is said to have suggested Moliere's comedy of the Precieuses Ridicules, but this play was not so much directed against it as against the numerous ridiculous coteries which sprang up in imitation. Research Catherine de Vivonne
Catherine Hayes was an Irish singer. She was born in 1825 at Limerick and died in 1861. She studied under Garcia in Paris and made her debut at Marseilles in 'I Puritani' in 1845. Research Catherine Hayes
Catherine Howard was a queen of England. She was born in 1522 and died in 1542. She was the daughter of Lord Edmund Howard. She was secretly married to Henry VIII in July 1540, the marriage being acknowledged the following month, making her Henry VIII's fifth wife. While married to Henry VIII she used her influence over the king to advance the cause of the papal party. In November 1541 Thomas Cranmer supplied alleged evidence against Catherine Howard which resulted in her 'admitting' pre-nuptial misconduct and she was duly executed on Tower Green in February 1542. Research Catherine Howard
Catherine I was empress of Russia. She was born in 1680 and died in 1727. She was first the mistress and then later the wife of Peter the Great. A woman of humble origin, having become mistress to Prince Menschikoff, she was relinquished by him to the czar. In 1708 and 1709 she bore the emperor the Princesses Anna and Elizabeth, the first of whom became the Duchess of Holstein by marriage, and mother of Peter III. The second became Empress of Russia. In 1711 the emperor publicly acknowledged Catharine as his wife, and she was subsequently proclaimed empress, and crowned in Moscow in 1724. When Peter with his army seemed irreparably lost on the Pruth in 1711 Catharine secured the relief of her husband by bribing the Turkish general. At Peter's death in 1725 Catharine was proclaimed Empress and autocrat of all the Russias, and the oath of allegiance to her was taken anew. Catharine died suddenly in 1727, her death having been hastened by dissipation. Research Catherine I
Catherine II (Catherine the Great) was Empress of Russia. She was born in 1729 and died in 1796. In 1745 she married Grand Duke Peter, the nephew and successor to the Russian EmpressElizabeth on whose death in 1762 her husband succeeded as Peter III. Fearing that her husbands mistress may supplant her - or perhaps just wishing the throne for herself, Catherine II won over the guards and proclaimed herself monarch. Peter abdicated and a few days later was murdered in prison, probably on the orders of Catherine II. Research Catherine II
Catherine of Aragon was the first wife of Henry VIII. She was born in 1485 and died in 1536. She was the youngest daughter of Ferdinand of Arragon and Isabella of Castile. She married Arthur, Prince of Wales when she was 16. Her husband dying about five months after their marriage, the king, unwilling to return her dowry, caused her to be contracted to his remaining son, Henry, and a dispensation was procured from the pope for that purpose. On his accession to the throne as Henry VIII in 1509 she was crowned with him, and despite the inequality of their ages retained her ascendency with the king for nearly twenty years. Her children, however, all died in infancy, excepting Mary, and on the advent of Anne Boleyn, Henry VIII affected to doubt the legality of his union with Catherine. He applied therefore to Rome for a divorce, but the attitude of the papal court ultimately provoked him to throw off his submission to it, and declare himself head of the English church.
Catherine of Braganza was the wife of Charles II, King of England. She was born in 1638, the daughter of John IV King of Portugal, and died in 1705. In 1662 she married Charles II, but her husband's infidelities and neglect, and her childlessness, were a source of mortification to her. In 1693 she returned to Portugal, where, in 1704, she was made regent, and in the conduct of affairs during the war with Spain showed marked ability. Research Catherine of Braganza
Catherine Parr was the sixth and last wife of Henry VIII of England. She was born in 1512 and died in 1548. Before marrying Hnery VIII in 1543 she had been married twice before. Her attachment to the reformed religion brought her into some danger, but from this she was released by the king's death in 1547. After the death of the king she espoused the Lord-admiral Lord Thomas Seymour, uncle to Edward VI but the union was an unhappy one, and she died while giving birth in 1548. She was the author of a volume of Prayers or Meditations, and a tract and letters published posthumously. Research Catherine Parr
Catherine Maria Sedgwick was an American educationalist and writer. She was born in 1789 at Massachusetts and died in 1867. The daughter of JudgeTheodoreSedgwick she established and managed a private school for the education of young ladies from 1813 to 1863. She published her first work of fiction, A New EnglandTale, in 1822, and two years later brought out Redwood, which was compared favourably with the novels of Cooper and translated into several European languages. Other works of hers were: The Traveller, Hope Leslie, Clarence, The Story of Le Bossu, The Linwoods, Letters from Abroad, Historical Sketches of the Old Painters, etc. She was a prolific writer, and contributed much to the annuals and magazines. Research Catherine Sedgwick
Catherine Sinclair was a Scottish writer. She was born in 1800 and died in 1864. The daughter of Sir John Sinclair, she published numerous tales, novels and books for children, etc, which had an extensive circulation. Research Catherine Sinclair
Catherine Talbot was an English author. She was born in 1721 and died in 1770. She wrote ' Reflections on the SevenDays of the Week' as well as poems and essays. Research Catherine Talbot
Catholic Majesty was a title which PopeAlexander VI gave to the kings of Spain, in memory of the complete expulsion of the Moors from Spain in 1491 by Ferdinand of Aragon. But even before that time, and especially after the council at Toledo in 589, several Spanish kings are said to have borne this title. Research Catholic Majesty
Catiline (Lucius Sergius Catilina) was a Roman conspirator, of patrician rank. He was born about 108 BC AND DIED IN 62 BC. In his youth he attached himself to the party of Sulla, but his physical strength, passionate nature, and unscrupulous daring soon gained him an independent reputation. Despite the charges of having killed his brother-in-law and murdered his wife and son, he was elected praetor in 68 BC, and governor of Africa in 67.
In 66 BC he returned to Rome to content the consulship, but was disqualified by an impeachment for maladministration in his province. Urged on by his necessities as well as his ambition, he entered into a conspiracy with other disaffected nobles. The plot, however, was revealed to Marcus Cicero, and measures were at once taken to defeat it. Thwarted by Marcus Cicero at every turn, and driven from the senate by the orator's bold denunciations, Catiline fled, and put himself at the head of a large but ill-armed following. The news of the suppression of the conspiracy and execution of the ringleaders at Rome diminished his forces, and he led the rest towards Gaul. Metellus Celer threw himself between the rebels and their goal, while Antonius pressed upon their rear, and, driven to bay, Catiline turned upon the pursuing army and died in the fighting that ensued in 62 BC. Research Catiline
The Catti, or Chatti one of the most renowned of the ancient German tribes. They inhabited what is now Hesse, also part of Franconia and Westphalia. Research Catti
Caucasian Race is a term which was introduced into ethnology by Blumenbach, in whose classification of mankind it was applied to one of the five great races into which all the different nations of the world were divided. Blumenbach believed this to be the original race from which the others were derived, and he gave it the epithet of Caucasian because he believed that its most typical form - which was also that of man in his highest physical perfection - was to be met with among the mountaineers of the Caucasus. In later classifications, or ethnologic speculations, Caucasic or Caucasian is often applied to all peoples of the fair or white type, as opposed to Mongols and others. Research Caucasian Race
Cavalier was a word meaning a horseman, whence a knight and a gentleman. In monarchical France the term 'chevalier' was a title of honour. The name was given to the followers of Charles I in derision in 1641 but afterwards became known in a more complimentary sense. During the Exclusion Bill of 1679 the term gave way to Tory. Research Cavalier
Cave Johnson was an American politician. He was born in 1793 and died in 1866. He represented Tennessee in the US Congress as a Democrat from 1829 to 1837, and from 1839 to 1845. He was Postmaster-General in Folk's Cabinet from 1845 to 1849. Research Cave Johnson
The Cayugas were a North American Indian tribe of the Iroquois. They were one of the Six Nations, and originally inhabited a district on Cayuga Lake. Though visited by French missionaries, they allied themselves with the English. During the American War of Independence the Cayugas joined the British, being already in arms against the colonists at Point Pleasant. They annoyed General Clinton on his march to join Sullivan in 1779 and as a result their villages were destroyed. After the war they ceded nearly all their lands to the State of New York. They later became scattered and almost totally disappeared. Research Cayugas
Cecco d'Ascoil (real name Francesco Degli Stabili) was an Italian poet. He was born in 1257 at Ascoli 1257 and burned at Florence 1327. His chief work, L'Acerba, a kind of poetic encyclopaedia, passed through many editions. He adversely criticised the writings of Dante and Cavalcante, and suffered death at the hands of the Inquisition for alleged heterodoxy. Research Cecco d'Ascoli
Cecil B De Mille was an American film director and producer. He was born in 1881 at Ashfield, Massachusetts and died in 1959. He produced some eighty films and directed almost as many. He also appeared in uncredited bit parts in a dozen films and wrote screenplays and stories. Research Cecil B De Mille
Sir Cecil Walter Beaton was an English photographer and designer. He was born in 1904 at London and died in 1980. Educated at Harrow and Cambridge he became a staff photographer for the magazines 'Vanity Fair' and 'Vogue' and earned a reputation for his society portraits including those of royalty. After the Second World War he designed scenery and costumes for ballets, operas, plays and films including the 1958 'Gigi' and 1964 'My Fair Lady' . Research Cecil Beaton
Cecil Day Lewis was an English poet and critic. He was born in 1904 and died in 1972. He was professor of poetry at oxford university. He became the poet laureate in 1968. Research Cecil Day Lewis
Cecil Gordon Lawson was an English landscape-painter. He was born in 1851 and died in 1882. As a child he studied in the studio of his father, also an artist. To a large extent, however, he was self-taught. He first exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1870, his picture being Cheyne Walk, Chelsea, and pictures of his were accepted in the three following years. In 1874 and 1875 he suffered rejection, but after that he was uniformly successful. His most famous picture was The Minister's Garden, exhibited in the Grosvenor Gallery in 1878; at the same exhibition appeared In the Valley: a Pastoral, another work of great merit. He made many successful appearances during the next few years. Research Cecil Lawson
Cecil John Rhodes was a South African statesman. He was born in 1853 at Bishop's Stortford, Hertfordshire and died in 1902. He went to South Africa and worked at the Kimberleydiamond mines. In 1881 he amalgamated a number of Kimberleydiamond mines with the De Beers Company, and in the same year started in politics, being elected to the Cape Assembly. He pursued a policy of British expansion in South Africa, in 1884 arranging the acquisition of Bechuanaland, becoming deputy commissioner of the region. Also in 1884 he obtained a considerable increase of territory across the Zulu border. In 1887 he turned his attention to Matabeleland, and in 1888 arranged a treaty to be signed placing the country under British protection, obtaining from the Matabele chief Lobengula a concession of mineral and other rights, the British South Africa Company was subsequently formed in 1889 to work the concession. The territory (now Zimbabwe) came under the control of Rhodes' company. Research Cecil Rhodes
Sir Cecil Arthur Spring-Rice was a British diplomat. He was born in 1859 and died in 1918. Educated at Eton and Oxford, he was British ambassador to the USA during the Great War and conducted the British side of negotiations leading up to the USA's participation in the war. Research Cecil Spring-Rice
Celestine II was a pope. He was a native of Tuscany, who had studied under Abelard, filled the papal chair for five months in 1143 to 1144. He granted absolution to Louis VII of France, and removed the interdict which for three years was laid upon that country. Research Celestine II
Celestine III was a pope. He was one of the Orsini family, and was elected pope in 1191, when, it is believed, about ninety years of age, and reigned until 1198. He crowned the emperor Henry VI, but afterwards excommunicated both Henry VI and Leopold, duke of Austria, on account of the captivity of Richard Coeur de Lion. Research Celestine III
Celestine V was a pope. He was chosen pope on July the 5th, 1294, but abdicated his dignity on December the 13th 1294, and died on May the 19th, 1296. He was the founder of the Celestines, and was canonized in 1313 by Clement V. Research Celestine V
The Celestines (named from their founder PopeCelestine V), were a religious order instituted about the middle of the 13th century, in Italy, who followed the rule of St Benedict, and were devoted entirely to a contemplative life. Very few priories of this once numerous order were still existant by the start of the 20th century. Research Celestines
Celsus was an Epicurean philosopher of the 2nd century AD, who is usually said to have been the author of an attack on Christianity entitled Logos Alethes (True Word), which is now lost, but is mostly preserved in the extracts contained in the more celebrated work Contra Celsum, in which it was answered by Origen. Research Celsus
The Celtiberi were a race of Celts who at an early period invaded the Spanish peninsula and intermarried with the inhabitants - the Iberians. They became subjects of Rome in the second Punic war but frequently rebelled. Research Celtiberi
The Celts were, according to some sources, ancient tribes of people which came to Britain from central Europe in the late Bronze age and again in the Iron Age. The name is also applied to the Ancient Britons, peoples living in Britain around the time of the bronze age until the invasion by the Romans. The Celts left no written accounts of their life, written accounts were made by the Romans, who in all probability were less than gracious.
Through archaeology we are able to understand a little of Celtic life, we know that they wove cloth, and yet corpses found are all dressed identically in a cloth made of brown felt, like a blanket, comprising a skirt and a cloak like top covering, in the case of women sometimes a crop top arrangement. These clothes found on dead Celts are often very tatty, full of holes, even though the deceased was obviously wealthy and of status, established from the artefacts found buried with the body.
We think that the Celts lived in round houses constructed of wattle and daub, and thatched with straw - these houses did not have a hole in the roof to emit the smoke from the interior fire, contrary to popular belief. If they had, the roof would fall outwards, and rain fall in and extinguish the fire. Rather, the smoke from the interior fire assisted in seasoning the wood and killing insects. They were farmers, growing wheat, barley and keeping sheep, pigs and goats. They were very eco-friendly, sustaining their environment for over a thousand years, and understanding herbalism which was used for medicine, and the production of coloured dyes.
At an early date the Celts divided into two great branches, speaking dialects widely differing from each other, but doubtless belonging to the same stock. One of these branches is the Gad-helic or Gaelic, represented by the Highlanders of Scotland, the Celtic Irish, and the Manx; the other is the Cymric, represented by the Welsh, the inhabitants of Cornwall, and those of Brittany. The Cornishdialect is now extinct.
The sun seems to have been the principal object of worship among the Celts, and groves of oak and the remarkable circles of stone commonly called 'Druidical Circles', their temples of worship. All the old Celts seem to have possessed a kind of literary order called Bards. The ancient Irish wrote in a rude alphabet called the Ogham; later they employed the Roman alphabet, or the Anglo-Saxon form of it. The chief literature existing consists of the hymns, martyrologies, annals, and laws of Ireland, written from the 9th to the 16th centuries. The Scottish Gaelic literature extant includes a collection of manuscripts in the Advocates' Library, Edinburgh, some of v/hich date from the 12th century; the Book of the Dean of Lismore, 16th century; a number of songs from the 17th century to the present day; and the so-called poems of Ossian. The Welsh literary remains date from the 9th century, and consist of glossaries, grammars, annals, genealogies, histories, poems, prose tales, etc. Research Celts
The Cenommani (Cenomani) were a Celtic people of the Aulerei nation of Gaul who inhabited the department of Sarthe. Their capital was Vindinum (Le Mans). A branch of the Cenommani invaded Italy in the 6th century BC, and occupied the left bank of the Po between the Adda and the Adige, with Verona as their capital.
Censors were two officers in ancient Rome who held office for eighteen months, and whose business was to draw up a register of the citizens and the amount of their property, for the purposes of taxation; to keepwatch over the morals of the citizens, for which purpose they had power to censurevice and immorality by inflicting a public mark of ignominy on the offender; and to superintend the finance administration and the keeping up of public buildings. The office was the highest in the state next to the dictatorship, and was invested with a kind of sacred character. The term is now applied to an officer empowered to examine books before publication. Research Censor
Cerdic was king of the West Saxons. He invaded England about the end of the 5th century and established the kingdom of Wessex in 516. He died in 534. At his death in 534 his kingdom included the present counties of Berkshire, Wiltshire, Dorset, and Hampshire (including the Isle of Wight). Research Cerdic
Cerinthus was the founder of a heretical sect of the first century whose doctrines were a mixture of Judaism and Gnosticism, and against whom the Gospel of John was supposed to have been written. Research Cerinthus
Cesare Balbo was anItalian author and statesman. He was born in 1789 at Turin and died in 1853. After holding one or two posts under the patronage of Napoleon, he devoted himself to history, publishing a history of Italy prior to the period of Charlemagne, a compendium of Italian history, etc. His Speranze d'ltalia (1843), a statement of the political condition of Italy, and of the practicable ideals to be kept in view, gave him a wide reputation. Research Cesare Balbo
Cesare Bonesana Beccaria (Marchesse diBeccaria) was an Italian economist and writer on penal laws. He was born in 1735 or 1738 and died in 1793. He is principally known from his treatise, On Crimes and Punishments, which was speedily translated into various languages, and to which many of the reforms in the penal codes of the principal European nations are traceable. He became professor of political economy at Milan. Research Cesare Beccaria
Cesare Borgia was the natural son of PopeAlexander VI, and of a Roman lady named Vanozza. He was born in
1478 and died in 1507. He was raised to the rank of cardinal in 1492, but afterwards divested himself of the office, and was made Duc de Valentinois by Louis XII. In 1499 he married a daughter of King John of Navarre, and accompanied Louis XII to Italy. He then, at the head of a body of mercenaries, carried on a series of petty wars, made himself master of the Romagna, attempted Bologna and Florence, and had seized Urbino when Alexander VI died in 1503. He was now attacked by a severe disease, at a moment when his whole activity and presence of mind were needed. He found means, indeed, to get the treasures of his father into his possession, and assembled his troops in Rome; but enemies rose against him on all sides, one of the most bitter of whom was the new pope, Julius II. Cesare Borgia was arrested and carried to Spain. He at length made his escape to his brother-in-law the King of Navarre, and was killed before the castle of Viana on March the 12th, 1507. He was charged with the murder of his elder brother, of the husband of his sister Lucretia Borgia, and the stiletto or secret poisoning was freely used against those who stood in his way. With all his crimes he was a patron of art and literature. Research Cesare Borgia
Cesare Lombroso was an Italian criminologist. He was born in 1836 at Verona and died in 1909. Educated at Turin, he became an army surgeon in 1859 and devoting himself especially to the study of mental diseases, he was in 1862 appointed professor of mental diseases at Pavia University, and professor of forensic medicine and psychiatry at Turin. In 1875 he published his work 'L'uomo delinquente' (The Criminal) in which he promulgated the theory that there was a definite criminal type which could be distinguished from the normal type both anatomically and psychologically. He was a prolific writer on criminology.
Very briefly his theory was that the anomalies of the criminal type, physical and mental, are due partly to degeneration and partly to atavism. The congenital criminal is on quite a different plane to the occasional criminal, and should be dealt with on different principles. Genius is a condition not altogether removed from insanity, and is in some respects analogous to crime. Research Cesare Lombroso
Cetewayo was king of the Zulus. Disturbances as to the succession having arisen in Zululand, Theophilus Shepstone, representative of the Natal government, secured the recognition of Cetewayo as king in 1873. The latter, however, in spite of the obligations into which he had entered, proved a tyrannical ruler, and maintained a large army. A dispute which had arisen regarding lands on the frontier was settled by arbitration in favour of the Zulus; but on the refusal of Cetewayo to comply with the conditions imposed war was declared against him by the British, and the king made prisoner soon after the battle of Ulundi in July, 1879. In 1882 he was conditionally restored to part of his dominions. In the following year he was driven from power by the chief Usibepu, and remained under the protection of the British until his death in 1884. Research Cetewayo
Chaka Khan is an American musician. She was born Yvette Marie Stevens in 1953 at Chicago. She began singing professionally at the age of 11, forming a group called the Crystalettes. At, 13, she was christened Chaka by an African shaman while involved with the political group the Black Panthers, and by 15, she was performing in local clubs under that name, (she acquired the Khan part after a brief marriage). At the age of 18, she found herself in Los Angeles, fronting a group of fledgling musicians by the name of Rufus. Research Chaka Khan
The Chancellor of the Exchequer is a cabinet minister who looks after the nation's money. It is the oldest office in the British Government, dating back to the days of Henry I when the Chancellor sat at a table covered with a chequered cloth and received taxes collected by the sheriffs. Research Chancellor
A chandler is a maker or seller of candles. The term is also applied to a merchant or dealer who specialises in a particular goods, such as a ships
chandler who sells goods for ships. Research Chandler
A chapman was a petty trader, usually itinerant. During the 18th century, travelling chapmen sold chapbooks, needles, lace, linen and other household goods, and bought old brass, old clothes and human hair. Research Chapman
The Probert Encyclopaedia was designed, edited and programed by
Matt and Leela Probert
Abbreviations
People
Research C. A. Bottolfsen
