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A charcutier is a pork butcher.
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Charilaos Tricoupis was a Greek statesman. He was born in 1832 at Nauplia and died in 1896. He was attached to the Greek legislation in London from 1852 until 1863 when he returned to Greece and represented Missolonghi in the Assembly and in 1865 was entrusted with the negotiations for the cession of the Ionian Islands by Great Britain to Greece. He was prime minister of Greece in 1882, from 1883 until 1885, from 1886 until 1890 and from 1892 until 1895.
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Charlemagne (Charles the Great) was king of France. He was born in 742 and died in 814. His father was Pepin the Short, king of the Franks, son of Charles Martel. On the death of his father, in 768, he was crowned king, and divided the kingdom of the Franks with his younger brother Carloman, at whose death in 771, Charlemagne made himself master of the whole empire, which embraced, besides France, a large part of Germany. His first great enterprise was the conquest of the Saxons, a heathen nation living between the Weser and the Elbe, which he undertook in 772; but it was not until 803 that they were finally subdued, and brought to embrace Christianity. While he was combating the Saxons, Pope Adrian implored his assistance against Desiderius, king of the Lombards. Charlemagne immediately marched with his army to Italy, took Pavia, overthrew Desiderius, and was crowned King of Lombardy with the iron crown.
In 778 he repaired to Spain to assist a Moorish prince, and while returning his troops were surprised in the valley of Roncesvalles by the Biscayans, and the rear-guard defeated; Roland, one of the most famous warriors of those times, fell in the battle. As his power increased, he meditated more seriously the accomplishment of the plan of his ancestor, Charles Martel, to restore the Western Empire. Having gone to Italy to assist the pope, on Christmas-day 800 he was crowned and proclaimed Caesar and Augustus by Leo III.
His son Pepin, who had been made king of Italy, died in 810, and his death was followed the next year by that of Charles, his eldest son. Thus of his legitimate sons one only remained, Louis, king of Aquitania, whom Charlemagne adopted as his colleague in 813.
Charlemagne was a friend of learning, and deserves the name of restorer of the sciences and teacher of his people. He attracted by his liberality the most distinguished scholars to his court (among others, Alcuin, from England), and established an academy in his palace at Aix-la-Chapelle, the sittings of which he attended with all the scientific and literary men of his court. He invited teachers of language and mathematics from Italy to the principal cities of the empire, and founded schools of theology and the liberal sciences in the monasteries. He strove to cultivate his mind by intercourse with scholars; and, to the time of his death, this intercourse remained his favourite recreation. His mother-tongue was a form of German, but he spoke several languages readily, especially Latin, and was naturally eloquent. He sought to improve the liturgy and church music, and attempted unsuccessfully to introduce uniformity of measures and weights.
He built a lighthouse at Boulogne, constructed several ports, encouraged agriculture, and enacted wise laws. He convened councils and parliaments, published capitularies, wrote many letters (some of which are still in existence), a grammar, and several Latin poems. His empire comprehended France, most of Catalonia, Navarre, and Aragon; the Netherlands, Germany as far as the Elbe, Saale, and Eider, Upper and Middle Italy, Istria, and a part of Sclavonia. In private life Charlemagne was exceedingly amiable; a good father and generous friend. In dress and habits he was plain and economical. His only excess was his love of women. In person he was strong and of great stature. He was succeeded by his son Louis le Debonnaire.
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Charles A Busiel was an American politician. He was a Republican governor of New Hampshire from 1895 until 1897.
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Charles A Culberson was an American politician. He was a Democratic governor of Texas from 1895 until 1899.
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Charles A Smith was an American politician. He was a Democratic governor of South Carolina during 1915.
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Charles A Sprague was an American politician. He was a Republican governor of Oregon from 1939 until 1943.
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Charles A Wickliffe was an American politician. He was born in 1788 and died in 1869. He represented Kentucky in the US Congress as a Democrat from 1823 to 1833. He was Postmaster-General in Tyler's Cabinet from 1841 to 1845.
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Charles Michael Abbe de L-Epee was a French philanthropist. He was born in 1712 and died in 1789. He had chosen the clerical profession, but had to leave the church on account of Jansenist opinions. The great object of his life was the instruction of the deaf and dumb, for whom he spent his whole income besides what was contributed by benevolent patrons. He erected institutions for the deaf at his own expense. He wrote several books on his method for teaching those unable to hear or speak.
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Charles Greely Abbot was an American astrophysicist. He was born in 1872 at Wilton, New Hampshire and died in 1973. He carried out research into solar radiation, and devised an apparatus for converting solar energy into power in 1972.
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Charles Francis Adams was an American diplomat. He was born in 1807 at Boston and died in 1886. He was a son of John Quincy Adams. His youthful years were spent in Europe, partly in England; but he finished his education at Harvard, and afterwards studied law. After serving some years in the Massachusetts legislature he was sent to congress in 1859. In 1861 he was sent to England and served as minister to Great Britain during the Lincoln administration which included the period of the American Civil War. He edited a complete edition of his grandfather's works in ten volumes with a life. He was one of the arbitrators on the Alabama claims.
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Charles Albert was King of Sardinia. He was born in 1798 and died in 1849. He was the son of Charles Emmanuel, prince of Savoy-Carignan. In 1831 he succeeded to the throne on the death of Charles Felix, but his government at first greatly disappointed the liberal party by its despotic tendencies. It was not until near 1848 that, seeing the growing strength of the progressive and national movement in Italy, he took up the position of its champion. As such he took the field against Austria on behalf of the Lombardo-Venetian provinces, but was crushingly defeated at Novara on the 23rd of March, 1849. He abdicated in favour of his son, Victor Emmanuel, and, retired to Portugal.
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Charles Anderson was an American politician. He was a Republican governor of Ohio from 1865 until 1866.
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Charles Anthon was an American, editor of classical school-books, and of works intended to facilitate the study of Greek and Latin literature. He was born in 1797 and died in 1867. He was long a professor in Columbia College, New York.
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Charles was archduke of Austria. He was born in 1771 at Florence and died in 1847. The third son of the Emperor Leopold II, he distinguished himself in various campaigns, and in 1796 he was appointed commander-in-chief of the Austrian army on the Rhine, and won several victories against the French. In 1805 he commanded in Italy against Massena, and won the Battle of Caldiero
but in the campaign of 1809 in Germany against Napoleon he was unsuccessful, the Battle of Wagram laying Austria at the feet of the French emperor. With that event the military career of Charles closed. He published several military works of value.
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Charles Robert Ashbee was an English architect and designer. He was born in 1863 and died in 1942. He was a leading advocate of the principles which inspired the Arts and Crafts Movement. As well as being the architect of some of the finest small houses of the time (good examples are in Cheyne Walk, London), Ashbee was also a designer of metalwork and jewellery, a poet, and essayist. In 1888 he founded the Guild of Handicraft, which moved from London to Chipping Campden in Gloucestershire in 1902, and in 1898 he founded the Essex House Press, one of the many private presses inspired by William Morris' Kelmscott Press. Ashbee published a pamphlet entitled 'Should We Stop Teaching Art?' in 1911 and in this he expressed a change in outlook that perhaps owed something to his meeting with Frank Lloyd Wright in 1900. He abandoned his advocacy of the artist-craftsman, and argued that the machine is the vital instrument of contemporary civilization and that it is by the correct use of the machine that the ideals of the Arts and Crafts
Movement are to be promoted.
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Charles Atlas was an Italian-born American bodybuilder and strong man. He was born in 1893 and died in 1972.
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Charles Aznavour is a French singer and actor. He was born in 1924.
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Charles B Aycock was an American politician. He was a Democratic governor of North Carolina from 1901 until 1905.
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Charles Babbage was a British mathematician. He designed an analytical engine which was the forerunner of the modern computer. He was born in 1801 and died in 1871. Educated at Cambridge, he occupied the Lucasian chair of mathematics at Cambridge for eleven years, but delivered no lectures. As early as 1812 he conceived the idea of calculating numerical tables by machinery, and in 1823 he received a grant from government for the construction of such a machine. After a series of experiments lasting eight years, and an expenditure of 17,000 pounds (6000 pounds of which was sunk by himself, the balance voted by government), Babbage abandoned the undertaking in favour of a much more enlarged work, an analytical engine, worked with cards like the jacquard-loom; but the project was never completed. The incompleted machine is now in the South Kensington Museum (Science Museum). Among the many treatises he published on subjects connected with mathematics and mechanics few can be regarded as finished performances.
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Sir Charles Barry was a British architect. He was born in 1795 at Westminster and died in 1860. Apprenticed to a surveyor and architect in Lambeth when he was 17 he exhibited his first architectural drawing at the Royal Academy. From 1816 until 1820 he travelled in Italy, Greece, Palestine and Egypt, returning to England he established a practice of architects. He was responsible for the design of the Institute of Fine Arts in Manchester, the reform Club in Pall Mall and after the old Houses of Parliament burned down in 1836, the design of the new Houses of Parliament.
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Charles Pierre Baudelaire was a French poet. He was born in 1821 and died in 1867. His first work of importance was a series of translations from Poe, ranking among the most perfect translations in any literature. A volume of poems, Les Flours du Mal (1857), established his reputation as a leader of the Romanticists, though the police thought it necessary to deodorize them. Of a higher tone were his Petits Poemes en Prose; followed in 1859 by a monograph on Theophile Gautier, in 1860 by Les Paradis Artificiels (opium and hashish studies), and in 1861 by Wagner and Taunhauser.
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Charles Tilstone Beke was an English traveller. He was born in 1800 and died in 1874. He studied law at Lincoln's Inn, and having devoted much attention to ancient history and kindred subjects he published in 1834 Origines Biblicae, researches in primitive history. Supported by private individuals, he joined Major Harris in the exploration of Abyssinia, of which he published an account in 1846. Two works on the Nile followed in 1847 and 1849, with a Memoir in defence of Peres Paez and Lobo, issued in Paris 1848. He also made journeys to Harran in 1861, to Abyssinia in 1865, and to the head of the Red Sea in 1874.
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Sir Charles Bell was a Scottish surgeon. He was born in 1774 at Edinburgh and died in 1842. In 1799 he became a fellow of the Edinburgh College of Surgeons before removing to London in 1804, and becoming surgeon at the Middlesex Hospital in 1812, and professor of anatomy and surgery at the Royal College of Surgeons in 1824. In 1836 he returned to Edinburgh as professor of surgery at Edinburgh University. He discovered the distinct function of the nerves and in 1804 contributed his account of the nervous system to his brother John Bell's 'Anatomy of the Human Body'. He was knighted in 1831.
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Charles Herbert Best was a Canadian physiologist. He was born in 1899 and died in 1978. With Banting he discovered the use of insulin in treating diabetes.
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Charles James Blomfield was Bishop of London. He was born in 1786 at Bury-St.-Edmunds and died in 1857. He studied at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he took high honours and was elected fellow. He was ordained in 1810, and after filling successively several curacies, and acting for a time as chaplain to the Bishop of London, was presented to the rectory of St Botolph, Bishopsgate. In 1822 he became Archdeacon of Colchester, in 1824 he was made Bishop of Chester, and in 1828 Bishop of London. He was a distinguished classical scholar, and published editions of several of the dramas of AEschylus, and others of Callimachus and Euripides, writing also on kindred subjects for the Edinburgh and the Quarterly Review. He edited a translation of the Greek grammar of Matthias, executed by a younger brother, Edward Blomfield. His chief distinction was gained by his energy in the management of his diocese, and his success in the cause of church extension in the metropolis. By his exertion many churches were built and schools started, and the colonies benefited by his efforts as well as London. In regard to the Tractarian movement, his attempts to lead his clergy to take a middle course gave rise to a good deal of discussion in his diocese.
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Charles Blondin was the stage name of Jean Francois Gravelat, a French acrobat. He was born in 1824 at St Omer and died in 1897 at Ealing, London. He specialised in tight-rope walking, and in 1859 crossed Niagra Falls on a rope 160 feet above the water, repeating the stunt several more times often performing daring tricks while crossing the wire and even carrying a man upon his back while he crossed.
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Charles Blount was an English a deistical writer. He was born in 1654 and died in 1693 committing suicide. He is said to have had the assistance of his father, Sir Henry Blount, in writing a work called Anima Mundi, or a Historical Account of the Opinions of the Ancients concerning the Human Soul after Death, etc. He wrote various other works of the same nature, and also an excellent treatise on the liberty of the press. He shot himself 1693, in consequence of the refusal of his deceased wife's sister to marry him.
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Charles Booth was an English sociologist. He was born in 1840 at Liverpool and died in 1916. He wrote a number of important studies of the poor and especially aged poor living in Britain.
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Charles Bourbon, duek of Bourbon also known as the Constable of Bourbon, was a French nobleman. He was born in 1489 and died in 1527. The son of Gilbert, count of Montpensier, and by his marriage with the heiress of the elder Bourbon line acquired immense estates. He received from Francis I, in the twenty-sixth year of his age, the sword of Constable, and in the war in Italy rendered important services by the victory of Marignano and the capture of Milan. After occupying for years the position of the most powerful and highly honoured subject in the realm he suddenly fell into disgrace, from what cause is not clearly known. But it is certain that the intrigues of the court party, headed by the king's mother and the Duke of Alengon, were threatening to deprive him both of honours and estates.
The Constable, embittered by this return for his services, entered into treasonable negotiations with the Emperor Charles V and the King of England (Henry VIII), and eventually fled from France to put his sword at the service of the former. He was received with honour by Charles, who knew his ability, and being made general of a division of the imperial army, contributed greatly to the overwhelming defeat of Francis at Pavia. But Charles Bourbon found that Charles V was readier to make promises to him than to fulfil them, and he returned disappointed and desperate to the command of his army in Italy, an army nominally belonging to the emperor, but composed mostly of mercenaries, adventurers, and desperadoes from all the countries of Europe. Supplies falling short, and the emperor refusing to grant him more, Charles Bourbon formed the daring resolve of leading his soldiers to Rome and paying-them with the plunder of the Eternal City. On May the 6th, 1527, his troops took Rome by storm, and the sacking and plundering continued for months. But Charles Bourbon himself was shot as he mounted the breach at the head of his soldiers. He was but thirty-eight years of age.
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Charles Boyle, the Earl of Orrery, was a British diplomatist and writer. He was born in 1676 and died in 1731. He was nominally the editor of the edition of the Epistles of Phalaris which led to a famous controversy with Bentley and to Jonathan Swift's Battle of the Books. He served in the army and as a diplomatist, and wrote a comedy and some worthless verse. The astronomical apparatus called the orrery took its name from him.
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Charles Bradlaugh was an English secularist and republican. He was born in 1833 and died in 1891. He published many pamphlets advocating republicanism, one of the more famous being entitled 'Fruits of Philosophy', published in 1876. Although being elected as member for Northampton, he was continually barred from sitting because he refused to swear the oath of allegiance - he claimed the right to make affirmation simply instead of taking the oath which members of parliament take before they can sit and vote, but being a professed atheist this right was denied him. Eventually in 1885 he was allowed to take his seat in a new parliament without swearing the oath. He was also editor of the National Reformer.
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Charles Brandon (Duke of Suffolk) was an English nobleman. He was born in 1485 and died in 1545. A son of William-Brandon who had carried Henry VII's standard at Bosworth, Charles Brandon appeared at the court of Henry VIII and in 1513 was marshal of the army that invaded France. In 1514 he was duke of Suffolk. He angered the king by his secret marriage to Henry VIII's sister Mary, the widowed queen of France, but made up with the king and was with him at the Field of the Cloth of Gold. In 1523 Charles Brandon led an army to France, and had some part in the overthrow of Wolsey. In 1536 he was sent against the rebels in the north, and received some monastic lands.
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Charles Etienne Brasseur de Bourbourg was a French writer on American history, archaeology, and ethnology. He was born in 1814 and died in 1874. He entered the priesthood, was sent to North America by the Propaganda, and lived and travelled here and in Central America for a number of years, partly in the performance of ecclesiastical functions. Among his works are Histoire du Canada (1851), Histoire des Nations civilisees du Mexique et de l'Amerique Centrale (1857-58), Gramatica de la Lengua Quiche (1862), Monuments anciens du Mexique (1864-66), etudes sur le Systeme graphique et la Langue des Mayas (1869-70), etc.
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Charles William Shirley Brooks was an English writer and journalist. He was born in 1816 at London and died in 1874. He wrote for Punch under the name 'Epicurus Rotundus' and in 1870 became the editor. He initiated the articles headed 'The Essence of Parliament'.
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Charles Brockden Brown was the first American professional writer. He was born in 1771 at Philadelphia and died in 1810. He was destined for the law, but the term intended for preparatory legal study was principally occupied with literary pursuits. His novel Wieland, or the Transformation, was published in 1798; Ormond, or the Secret Witness, in 1799; and Arthur Mervyn in 1800. In the last-named work the ravages of the yellow fever, which the author had witnessed in New York and Philadelphia, are painted with terrific truth. He was originator of the Monthly Magazine and American Review (1799-1800). He also founded in 1805 the Literary Magazine and American Register, which he edited for five years. Among his other works are Clara Howard (1801) and Jane Talbot (1804).
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Charles Farrar Browne was an American humorist. He was born in 1836 at Waterford, Maine and died in 1867. He was best known as Artemus Ward. Originally a printer, he became editor of papers in Ohio, where his humorous letters became very popular. He subsequently lectured on California and Utah in the States and in England, where he contributed to Punch. His writings consist of letters and papers by Artemus Ward, a pretended exhibitor of wax figures and wild beasts, and are full of drollery and eccentricity.
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Charles Burney was an English composer and writer on music. He was born in 1726 and died in 1814. He studied under Dr. Arne, and soon obtained a reputation for his musical pieces. While organist at Lynn Regis he commenced his General History of Music. He wrote also several other valuable works. His second daughter, Frances Burney (Madame d'Arblay), published a memoir of her father.
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Charles C Gossett was an American politician. He was a Democratic governor of Idaho during 1945.
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Charles C Stevenson was an American politician. He was a Republican governor of Nevada from 1887 until 1890.
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Charles C Stockley was an American politician. He was a Democratic governor of Delaware from 1883 until 1887.
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Charles C Stratton was an American politician. He was a Whig governor of New Jersey from 1845 until 1848.
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Charles C Van Zandt was an American politician. He was a Republican governor of Rhode Island from 1877 until 1880.
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Earl Charles John Canning was a British statesman. He was born in 1812 and died in 1862. The son of George Canning, ne was educated at Eton and Oxford. In 1841 he was appointed under-secretary of state for foreign affairs in Peel's government, and in 1846 commissioner of woods and forests. In the Aberdeen ministry of 1853, and under Palmerston in 1855, he held the postmaster-generalship, and in 1856 went out to India as governor-general. Throughout the mutiny he showed a fine coolness and clear-headedness, and though his carefully-pondered decisions were sometimes lacking in promptness, yet his admirable moderation did much to re-establish the British Empire in India. He was raised to the rank of earl and made viceroy, but returned to England with shattered health in 1862, dying in the same year.
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Charles Carroll was the last surviving signer of the American Declaration of Independence. He was born in 1737 at Carrollton and died in 1832. Educated by Jesuits in France. He returned to Maryland in 1765. In 1775 he was one of the council of safety. On the 4th of July 1776, he was appointed deputy to Congress, and on August the 2nd, signed the Declaration.
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Charles Stuart Calverley was an English poet. He was born in 1831 at Martley, Worcestershire with the surname Blayds and died in 1884. He was educated at Harrow, Balliol College, Oxford, and Christ's College, Cambridge. He showed great skill in Latin and Greek composition both at school and college, taking his degree as second in the classical tripos; made himself famous as a writer of humorous English verse, and also for serious poetical efforts, both in original poetry and translation. He was called to the bar, but his promising legal career was cut short by a serious accident that befell him. He has few equals as a parodist and writer of light verse, and his translations from Homer, Theocritus, etc, are also of great merit. An edition of his writings in one volume was published in 1901, with a short memoir.
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Charles Chauncy was an American educator. He was born in 1592 and died in 1672. He fled to New England in 1638; was settled as minister at Scituate, Massachusetts, in 1641 and was president of Harvard College from 1654 until his death.
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Charles Chubb was an English locksmith. He died in 1845. He established a lock-making business in London for the manufacture of detector locks, patented by his brother Jeremy Chubb in 1818. His son, John Chubb made various improvements on the patent.
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Charles Churchill was an English poet and satirist. He was born in 1731 and died in 1764. He was educated at Westminster School, but did not have a university education, owing perhaps to an early and imprudent marriage. Being admitted to holy orders he became curate for his father at Rainham, Essex, and on the death of his father he obtained his curacy of St John's, Westminster but owing to his love of gaiety he was soon overwhelmed with debt, and had to compound with his creditors.
In 1761 he published anonymously a poem called The Rosciad, a clever satire on the chief actors of the day. Its success was increased by the vehemence with which the players replied to it, and Charles Churchill seized the opportunity of giving the town a new satire, The Apology. A course of dissipation and intemperance followed, and throwing aside all regard for his profession, Charles Churchill became a complete man about town and a professional satirist. His other productions include The Ghost, in which Dr. Johnson is satirized; The Prophecy of Famine, directed against the Scotch; an Epistle to Hogarth, the Conference, the Duellist, the Candidate, and the Journey.
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Charles Clark was an American politician. He was a Democratic governor of Mississippi from 1863 until 1865.
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Charles Cowden Clarke was an English writer. He was born in 1787 at Enfield, Middlessex and died in 1877. He was one of the minor members of the Shelley, Keats, and Leigh Hunt group. His publications include his Hundred Wonders (1814), Adam the Gardener (1834), Shakespeare Characters (1863), and Moliere Characters (1865). He is best known, however, by the edition of Shakespeare which he annotated in conjunction with his wife, and by the Shakespeare Key (1879).
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Charles Carleton Coffin was an American journalist. He was born in 1823 at Massachusetts and died in 1896.Under the name of 'Carleton' he was war correspondent of the Boston Journal during the whole of the American Civil War and the Prusso-Austrian War of 1866.
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Charles Allston Collins was an English painter. He was born in 1828 and died in 1873. He married Kate Dickens, the youngest daughter of Charles Dickens, in 1860.
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Charles Caleb Colton was an English writer. He was born in 1780 and died in 1832 of suicide. He held the united living of Kew and Petersham, but was eccentric in his manners, extravagant in his habits, and irremediably addicted to gambling. Overwhelmed by debr he fled to the United States, and after a sojourn there of some years he moved to Paris, where he acquired a fortune of 25,000 pounds by gambling, which was soon dissipated. Through apprehension of a surgical operation he committed suicide. He wrote several satirical poems, Hypocrisy, Napoleon, etc; but his most remarkable work is Lacon; or, Many Things in Few Words.
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Charles Conder was an English painter best known for his designs for fans. He was born in 1868 and died in 1909.
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Charles west Cope was an English painter. He was born in 1811 and died in 1890. He studied at the Royal Academy and in Italy, and first exhibited at the academy in 1831. In 1843 he gained a prize of 300 pounds for his picture 'The First Trial by Jury;' in 1844, by his fresco the 'Meeting of Jacob and Rachael,' secured the commission for one of six frescoes for the House of Lords, producing accordingly 'Edward the Black Prince receiving the Order of the Garter.' Altogether he has executed eight frescoes from English history of the 17th century for the House of Lords, while his other works have been numerous, the subjects being historical, romantic, or domestic. Of note are Last Days of Cardinal Wolsey, Prince Henry before Justice Gascoigne, Departure of the Pilgrim Fathers, Burial of Charles I, Parting of Lord William and Lady Russell, L'Allegro and Il Penseroso, Milton's Dream, Shylock and Jessica, Ann Page and Slender, Lear and Cordelia. He became ARA in 1844 and RA in 1848, but retired in 1883.
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Charles Cornwallis (Lord Cornwallis) was a British soldier and the first marquess of Cornwallis. He was born in 1737 and died in 1805. He served in the Seven Years' War. He took his seat in Parliament and favoured the Americans during the preliminary troubles. Having been made lieutenant-general he was sent to America in 1776, fought in the Battle of Long Island, and pursued George Washington's army through New Jersey. He was defeated at the Battle of Princeton, decided the victory of Brandywine in 1777, and served at Germantown and Monmouth. Having been appointed to the command of the Southern army he overwhelmed Gates at Camden in 1780, but in his contest with Greene he was worsted, although he won a technical victory at Guilford Court House in 1781. Then followed his campaign in Virginia against Lafayette, the siege of his army in Yorktown, and its surrender to the Franco-American troops on October the 17th 1781. As Governor-General of India, from 1786 until 1793 and in 1805, he rendered valuable military and administrative services. He was also lord-lieutenant of Ireland, from 1798 until 1801, at the epoch of the Union.
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Charles Cotton was an English writer. He was born in 1630 and died in 1687. He lived the life of a country gentleman, being a great angler and skilled in horticulture. His works are numerous, including Scarronides, or Virgil Travestie, Instructions how to Angle for a Trout and Grayling in a Clear Stream, a supplement to his friend Izaak Walton's Complete Angler; Poems on Various Occasions; translations of Montaigne's Essays, Corneille's Horace, etc.
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Charles Augustine de Coulomb was a French physicist. He was born in 1736 and died in 1806. He served as a military engineer for France in the West Indies, but retired to Blois, France, at the time of the French Revolution to continue research in magnetism, friction, and electricity. In 1777 he invented the torsion balance for measuring the force of magnetic and electrical attraction. With this invention, Coulomb was able to formulate the principle, now known as Coulomb's law, governing the interaction between electric charges. In 1779 Coulomb published the treatise 'Théorie des machines simples' (Theory of Simple Machines), an analysis of friction in machinery. After the war ended Coulomb came out of retirement and assisted the new government in devising a metric system of weights and measures. The unit of electrical charge, the coulomb, is named after him.
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Charles Frederick Crisp was an English-born American lawyer. He was born in 1845 at Sheffield, Yorkshire and died in 1896. He served in the Confederate army from 1861 until 1864 and in 1866 was admitted to the bar. In 1872 he became Solicitor-General of Georgia, a post he held until 1882. From 1877 until 1882 he served as a Judge of the Supreme Court of Georgia before resigning and accepting a nomination to Congress of which he was chosen speaker in 1891 and again in 1893.
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Charles Genevieve Louise Auguste Andre Timothy D'Eon de Beaumont was a French transvestite, chevalier, doctor of law, diplomatist, etc. He was born in 1728 and died in 1810. In 1755 he was sent as envoy on a difficult mission to the Russian court, on which occasion he seems to have dressed himself as a woman. He afterwards distinguished himself in the Seven Years' War, then went to London as secretary of the French legation, and ultimately became minister plenipotentiary. Having quarrelled with the French government he lived fourteen years in London in a kind of banishment. During these years he had occasionally, probably for purposes of intrigue, dressed and passed as a female, and about this time his sex began to be doubted. In 1777 he returned to France, was ordered to dress as a woman, and continued to do so both there and after he returned to England in 1785, where he died in great poverty in 1810, being then regarded by everyone as a female.
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Charles D Kimball was an American politician. He was a Republican governor of Rhode Island from 1901 until 1903.
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Charles A Dana was an American newspaper man. He was born in 1819. From 1848 until 1862 he was the managing editor of the New York Tribune edited by Horace Greeley. He was appointed Assistant Secretary of War in 1863, and from 1867 to 1868 organized and became editor of the New York Sun.
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Charles Egbertt Darwin was an English naturalist. He was born in Shrewsbury in 1809 and died in 1882. The son of Dr.Robert Darwin and grandson of Dr. Erasmus Darwin, he was
educated at Shrewsbury School, and at the universities of Edinburgh and Cambridge. He early devoted himself to the study of natural history, and in 1831 he was appointed naturalist to the surveying voyage of HMS Beagle, commanded by Captain (afterwards Admiral) Fitzroy. The vessel sailed in December 1831, and did not return until October 1836, after having circumnavigated the globe.
Charles Darwin returned home with rich stores of knowledge, part of which he soon gave to the public in various works. In 1839 he married his cousin Emma Wedgwood, and henceforth spent the life of a quiet country gentleman, engrossed in scientific pursuits - experimenting, observing, recording, reflecting, and generalizing. In 1839 he published his Journal of Researches during a Voyage round the World; in 1842 Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs; in 1844 Geological Observations on Volcanic Islands, etc; in 1846 Geological Observations in South America; in 1851 and 1854 his Monograph of the Cirrhipedia, and soon after the Fossil Lepadridae and Balsenidae of Great Britain. In 1859 his name attained its great celebrity by the publication of The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection. This work, scouted and derided though it was at first in certain quarters, maybe said to have worked nothing less than a revolution in biological science. In it for the first time was given a full exposition of the theory of evolution as applied to plants and animals, the origin of species being explained on the hypothesis of natural selection.
The rest of his works are largely based on the material he had accumulated for the elaboration of this great theory. The principal are a treatise on the Fertilization of Orchids published in 1862; Domesticated Animals and Cultivated Plants; or The Principle of Variation, etc, under Domestication published in 1867; Descent of Man and Variation in Relation to Sex published in 1871; The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals published in 1872; Movements and Habits of Climbing Plants; Insectivorous Plants published in 1875; Cross and Self Fertilisation published in 1876; The Power of Movement in Plants published in 1880; The Formation of Vegetable Mould published in 1881; the last containing a vast amount of information in regard to the common earth-worm.
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Charles Giles Bridle Daubeny was an English botanist. He was born in 1795 and died in 1867. For many years he was professor of chemistry, botany, and rural economy at Oxford, and
wrote several esteemed scientific works.
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Charles Davis was an American sailor. He was born in 1807 and died in 1877. He was the founder of the American Nautical Almanac, and was connected with the US navy from 1823 to 1867. In 1862 he was chief of the board of navigation, and commanded the Mississippi flotilla, and was superintendent of the naval observatory from 1865 to 1867 and from 1870 to 1877.
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Charles Gates Dawes was an American financier and politician. He was born in 1865 and died in 1951. He was vice president of the USA from 1925 to 1929 and won the Nobel peace prize in 1925. He headed the international committee which devised the 'Dawes Plan' for payments of reparations by Germany following the Great War.
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Charles Dawson was a British solicitor, amateur scientist and fraud. He was born in 1864 and died in 1916. A lawyer and later scientist at the Natural History museum in London he 'discovered' the Piltdown Man fossils between 1910 and 1912, but in reality produced the entire fake.
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Charles Alexandre de Calonne was a French statesman. He was born in 1734 at Douai and died in 1802. He studied at Paris, and
devoted himself to the duties of an advocate. In 1783 he succeeded Maurepas as minister of finance; but after four years of incessant endeavours at financial reform he could do nothing but advise an assembly of the notables, which accordingly met in 1787. The financial statement which he then made led to his dismissal, and he retired to England. On the breaking out of the revolution he supported the royalist party with much zeal.
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Charles Louis de Saulces de Freycinet was a French statesman. He was born in 1828 at Poix and died after 1905. He was trained as an engineer, and held several important appointments; he was elected to the senate in 1876; was minister of public works 1877; minister for foreign affairs 1877-1879; and was premier four different times between 1879 and 1890, as also war minister several times. He was the author of important works on engineering.
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Charles De Gaulle was a French soldier and statesman. He was born in 1890 and died in 1969. During the Second World War he was leader of the Free French Forces. In 1944 he led the liberation forces that entered Paris, and defeating the Communists who had stayed in France and fought the Nazis, became head of the provisional government.
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Charles de Gontaut, Duke of Biron, was a French noble. He was born about 1562 and died in 1602. He was a great favourite with Henry IV, who raised him to the rank of Admiral of France in 1592, and in 1598 made him a peer and duke. He was sent to England in 1601 to announce Henry's marriage with Mary de Medici, but about the same time he was found guilty of forming a treasonable plot with the Duke of Savoy, and executed 1602.
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Charles de Langlade was a Canadian soldier. He was born in 1729 and died in 1800. He led the Ottawas in the defeat of General Edward Braddock in 1755. He aided Montcalm during the siege of Quebec, and was active in the battle on the Plains of Abraham. In 1777 he led a band of Indians in aid of the English under John Burgoyne. From 1780 to 1800 he was commander-in-chief of the Canadian militia.
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Charles Louis de Secondat (Baron de Montesquieu) was a French philosopher, writer and lawyer. He was born in 1689 at Gascony and died in 1755.
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Charles Maurice De Talleyrand-Perigord was a French statesman. He was born in 1754 and died in 1838. A son of the Comte de Talleyrand-Perigord, and accident in childhood rendered him lame and precluded his entry into military service with the result that the family title passed to a younger brother and he joined the church. In 1789 he was made bishop of Autun. He sided with the Revolution and acquired a position of distinction in the National Assembly, and took a leading part in attacking the privileges of the church, relinquishing his orders in 1791. In 1792 he went to England on an unofficial political mission, the French monarchy not having as yet been formally ended. While there he was denounced by extremists in the Revolution, and he stayed in England until the fall of Robespierre. In 1797 he became foreign minister of the Directory, and barring a short retirement held the post until 1807 when he retired with the title of prince of Benevento.
He was minister of foreign affairs in France when Pinckney, Marshall and Gerry were sent from the United States on a special mission in 1797. He demanded (i) a disavowal of President Adams' hostile expressions toward France; (2) a loan, and (3) douceurs, which the American envoys refused to concede. The unofficial French negotiators, Hottinguer, Bellamy and Hauteval, were designated as X, Y and Z in the reports sent to the United States. These X, Y, Z papers aroused great indignation against France. Later, Charles Maurice De Talleyrand-Perigord made overtures for more favourable negotiations. He had visited the United States in 1794. He was still Minister at the time of the Louisiana cession of 1803.
Charles De Talleyrand-Perigord subsequently differed with Napoleon and took a lead in the faction which worked against the emperor and on his deposition in 1814 was rewarded with the post of foreign minister to Louis XVIII. He finally retired in 1834.
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Charles Deane was an American historian. He was born in 1813 at Maine and died in 1889. He was the author of many historical writings and owner of a very valuable library on early New England history.
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Charles Devens was an American soldier and jurist. He was born in 1820 and died in 1891. An eminent lawyer in Massachusetts at the time of the outbreak of the American Civil War, entered the army as a major and, after a brilliant military service, became a brevet major-general. From 1873 until 1877, and again from 1881 until his death, he was a Judge of the Supreme Court of Massachusetts. From 1877 to 1881 he was Attorney-General in the Cabinet of President Hayes.
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Charles Dibdin was an English poet, dramatist and composer. He was born in 1745 at Southampton, Hampshire and died in 1814. At the age of fifteen he made his appearance on the stage, and was early distinguished as a composer. He invented a new kind of entertainment, consisting of music, songs, and public declamations, which he wrote, sung, composed, and performed, himself, and by this means succeeded in amusing the public for twenty years. His patriotic songs were very popular, and his sea-songs, amongst which are 'Tom Bowling', 'Poor Jack' and 'The Trim-built Wherry'.
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Charles Dickens was a 19th century English novelist whose powerful imagery brought to public attention the terrible conditions endured by the poor. He was born in 1812 at Landport, Portsmouth and died in 1870.
His father, John Dickens, was then in the employment of the Navy Pay Department, but subsequently became a newspaper reporter in London. Young Charles Dickens received a somewhat scanty education, was for a time a mere drudge in a blacking warehouse, and subsequently a clerk in an attorney's office. Having perfected himself in shorthand, however, he became a newspaper critic and reporter, was engaged on the Mirror of Parliament and the True Sun, and in 1835 on the Morning Chronicle. For some time previously he had been contributing humorous pieces to the Monthly Magazine; but at length, in 1835, appeared in the Morning Chronicle the first of that series of Sketches by Boz which brought Charles Dickens into fame. It was followed in quick succession by a pamphlet entitled Sunday under Three Heads, by Timothy Spark publsihed in 1836; the Tuggs of Barnsgate published in 1836; The Village Coquette, a comic opera published in 1836; and a farce called the Strange Gentleman published in 1836.
In the same year Chapman and Hall engaged the new writer to prepare the letterpress for a series of comic sketches on sporting subjects by Seymour, an artist who had already achieved fame, and suggested as a subject the adventures of an eccentric club. Seymour committed suicide soon after, and H K Browne joined Charles Dickens as illustrator, the result being the immortal Pickwick Papers.
The great characteristics of Charles Dickens' genius were now fully apparent, and his fame rose at once to the highest point it was possible for a writer of fiction to reach. A new class of characters, eccentric indeed, but vital representations of the humours and oddities of life, such as Mr. Pickwick, Sam Weller and his father, Mr. Winkle, and others, were made familiar to the public. Under the name of the Posthumous Papers of the Pickwick Club this work was published in two volumes in 1837.
In the same year Charles Dickens was engaged as editor of Bentley's Magazine, to which he contributed Oliver Twist, a work which opened up that vein of philanthropic pathos and indignant satire of institutions which became a distinguishing feature of his works. Before the completion of Oliver Twist, Nicholas Nickleby was begun, being issued complete in 1839. As the special object of Oliver Twist was to expose the conduct of workhouses, that of Nicholas Nickleby was to denounce the management of cheap boarding-schools.
Master Humphrey's Clock, issued in weekly numbers, contained among other matter two other leading tales, The Old Curiosity Shop, and Barnaby Rudge, the latter a historical tale, going back to the times of the Gordon riots. It was published complete in 1840-41. In 1841 Dickens visited America, and on his return he wrote American Notes for General Circulation published in 1842.
His next novel, Martin Chuzzlewit published in 1844, dwelt again on his American experiences. This work also added a number of typical figures - Mr. Pecksniff, Mark Tapley, Sarah Gamp, and others - to English literature. The series of Christmas Tales, in which a new element of his genius, the power of handling the wierd machinery of ghostly legend in subordination to his own peculiar humour, excited a new sensation of wonder and delight. These enumerated consecutively were: A Christmas Carol published in 1843, The Chimes published in 1844, The Cricket on the Hearth published in 1845), The Battle of Life published in 1846, The Haunted Man and the Ghost's Bargain published in 1847. The extraordinary popularity of these tales created for a time a new department in literature, that of the Sensational tale for the Christmas season.
In 1845 Charles Dickens went to Italy, and on his return the Daily News, started on the 1st of January, 1846, was intrusted to his editorial management; but, despite his early training, this was an occupation uncongenial to his mind, and in a few months the experiment was abandoned. His Pictures from Italy were published the same year. Next followed his novel of Dombey and Son published in 1848), and David Copperfield, a work which has a strong autobiographical element in it published in 1849-50.
In 1850 Charles Dickens became editor of the weekly serial Household Words, in which various original contributions from his own pen appeared. In 1853 his Bleak House came out. A Child's History of England, commenced in Household Words, was published in 1852-64. Hard Times appeared in Household Words, and was published in 1854. Little Dorrit, commenced in 1856, dealt with imprisonment for debt, the contrasts of character developed by wealth and poverty, and executive imbecility, idealized in the Circumlocution Office. In 1859, in consequence of a disagreement with his publishers, All the Year Round superseded Household Words; and in the first number of this periodical, 28th May, was begun A Tale of Two Cities. Great Expectations followed in the same paper, on the 1st of December, 1860. Both were soon. republished, and are generally considered as the poorest of Charles Dickens' works.
In All the Year Round also appeared a series of disconnected sketches, called the Uncommercial Traveller, published in 1868. Our Mutual Friend, completed in 1865, and published in the usual monthly numbers, with illustrations by Marcus Stone, was the last great serial work which Charles Dickens lived to finish. It contained some studies of characters of a breadth and depth unusual with Charles Dickens, and is distinguished among his works by its elaborate plot. The first number of his last work, The Mystery of Edwin Drood, was issued on the 1st of April, 1870, and only three numbers had appeared when he died somewhat suddenly, at his residence, Gad's Hill Place, near Rochester, on the 9th of June. He had considerably overtaxed his strength during his later years, more especially by his successive series of public readings from bis own works, one series being delivered in America in 1867-68. He was buried in Westminster Abbey.
Charles Dickens' work as a novelist is firmly based upon a wide and keen observation of men. It is true that most of his characters suffer from being created to exhibit little more than one trait or quality alone, and thus receive an air of grotesqueness and exaggeration which approaches caricature. But the single trait or quality which they embody is so truly conceived, and exhibited with such vitality and humour, as to place Charles Dickens, in spite of all that is grotesque and overstrained in his work, amongst the great artists.
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Sir Charles Wentworth Dilke was and English writer and politician. He was born in 1843 and died in 1911. The son and grandson of men well known in their day, he graduated at Cambridge, and was called to the bar. His first work, Greater Britain, the result of a tour round the world in 1866-67, became very popular. In 1868 he was elected MP for Chelsea, and he represented this constituency up to 1885. After a few years' retirement (owing to a divorce case) he became MP for Forest of Dean. He was under-secretary for foreign affairs, president of the local government board, etc. The Present Position of European Politics, and Problems of Greater Britain, are among his works. He organised the Labour members of parliament into an influential party.
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Charles Montagu Doughty was an English writer and explorer. He was born in 1843 and died in 1926. His most important travels were to Arabia, venturing from Damascus to Jeddah with Bedouins and pilgrims.
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Charles Drelincourt was a French Calvinistic minister. He was born in 1595 at Sedan and died in 1669 at Paris. He was the author of many controversial works, and of Consolations against the Fear of Death. To promote the sale of the English translation of this work, Daniel De Foe wrote his Apparition of Mrs, Veal.
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Charles Dufresne Sieur Ducange was a French historian and linguist. He was born in 1610 near Amiens and died in1688. He studied in the Jesuits' College at Amiens, afterwards at Orleans and Paris. At Paris he became parliamentary advocate in 1631, and in 1645 royal treasurer at Amiens, from which place he was driven by a pestilence, in 1668, to Paris. Here he devoted himself entirely to literature, and published his great works: his Glossaries of the Greek and Latin peculiar to the Middle Ages and the Moderns; his Historia Byzantina; the Annals of Zonaras; the Numismatics of the Middle Ages; and other important works.
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Charles Pinot Duclos was a French novelist, writer of memoirs, and grammarian. He was born in 1704 at Dinant and died in 1772. He became secretary of the French Academy, and on the resignation of Voltaire he was appointed to the office of historiographer of France. His writings are lively and satirical. Among the best are Confessions du Comte de B (1741); Considerations sur les Moeurs de ce Siecle; Memoires secrets sur les Regnes de Louis XIV et XV; and Remarques sur la Grammaire generale de Port-Royal.
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Charles Riviere Dufresny was a French comic poet. He was born in 1648 and died in 1724. He was clever and versatile, and had great skill as a landscape gardener and an architectural designer. Among his dramatic pieces may be mentioned L'Esprit de Contradiction; Le Mariage Fait et Rompu; and Le Double Veuvage.
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Charles Francois Dupperier Dumouriez was a French soldier. He was was born in 1739 at Cambrai of a noble family of Provence and died in 1823. He served as an officer in the Seven Years' war. In 1768 he went to Corsica as quartermaster-general of the small army which was sent for the conquest of that island, and was afterwards made colonel. In 1778 he was appointed governor of Cherbourg.
At the revolution he joined the Jacobins, and subsequently the Girondists, and in 1792 he was minister of foreign affairs. War breaking out between France and Austria he resigned in order to take command of the army; invaded Flanders, and defeated the Austrians at Jemappes and conquered Belgium. Instead of prosecuting the war vigorously he now entered upon measures for the overthrow of the revolutionary government, issued a proclamation, in which he promised the restoration of the constitutional monarchy in the person of the heir to the crown, but was attacked by the Versailles volunteers, and compelled to flee on April the 4th, 1793. The convention set a price of 300,000 livres upon his head. At first he retired to Brussels, and after various wanderings found a final refuge in England. His Memoirs, written by himself, appeared in 1794; an enlarged edition in 1822. He was also the author of a large number of political pamphlets.
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Sir Charles Lock Eastlake was an English painter and writer. He was born in 1793 at Plymouth and died in 1865. He was taught drawing by Sam Prout and history painting by Benjamin Haydon, later attending the schools of the Royal Academy. In 1827 he was elected ARA and in 1829 RA and in 1842 librarian to the Academy. From 1843 until 1847 he was keeper of the National Gallery and in 1850 was chosen president of the Academy and knighted. In 1855 he was appointed director of the National Gallery.
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Charles Edison was an American politician. He was a Democratic governor of New Jersey from 1941 until 1944.
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Charles Ellet was an American civil engineer who designed the first wire- cable suspension bridge in the USA, in 1842. He was born in 1810 at Pennsylvania and died in 1862. He also designed the world's first long-span wire-cable suspension bridge, crossing the Ohio River at Wheeling, West Virginia. He began his career as a surveyor and assistant engineer on the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal in 1828. In 1831 and 1832 he was in Europe, enrolled at the Ecole Polytechnique in Paris and studied the various engineering works taking place in France, Germany, and Britain. For his first wire-cable suspension bridge, over the Schuylkill River at Fairmount, Pennsylvania, Ellet introduced a technique he had learned in France of binding small wires together to make the cables. The central span of the suspension bridge over the Ohio River was at 308 meters the longest ever built when it was completed in 1849. The bridge failed under wind forces in 1854; however, Ellet's towers remained standing and the bridge was rebuilt.
Following the outbreak of the American Civil War in 1861, Ellet produced a steam-powered ship for the Union forces to ram the Confederates on the Mississippi River and in June 1862, led a fleet of nine of these rams in the Battle of Memphis. The Union side was victorious, but in the course of the fighting Ellet was fatally wounded.
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Charles John Ellicott was an English divine. He was born in 1819 and died in 1905. Educated at Cambridge, after being professor of divinity in King's College, London, Hulsean lecturer and Hulsean professor of divinity at Cambridge, and dean of Exeter, he was appointed bishop of Gloucester and Bristol in 1863. He was for eleven years chairman of the scholars engaged on the revision of the New Testament translation, and has published commentaries on the Old and the New Testament, as well as sermons, addresses, lectures, etc.
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Charles Isaac Elton was an English jurist and archeaologist. He was born in 1839 and died in 1900. He was educated at Cheltenham and Oxford, became a barrister and a member of parliament, and wrote various works on legal and other subjects, the most important being Origins of English History. In this work he traces the development of England and its inhabitants, from the earliest times regarding which we have any knowledge, to the acceptance of Christianity by the Anglo-Saxons, the investigation of the evidence furnished by Greek and Roman writers, and the discussion of prehistoric ethnology and archseology being especially thorough.
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Charles Evans Hughes was an American politician. He was a Republican governor of New York from 1907 until 1910.
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Charles F Hurley was an American politician. He was a Democratic governor of Massachusetts from 1937 until 1939.
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Charles J Faulkner was an American politician. He was born in 1806 and died in 1884. He was the author of the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850, was a US Congressman from Virginia from 1851 until 1859, Minister to France from 1859 until 1861, when he was recalled as disloyal. He was a US Representative from 1875 to 1877.
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Charles Simon Favart was the creator of the serio-comic opera in France. He was born in 1710 and died in 1792. The son of a pastry-cook, his poetical reputation rests principally on his numerous productions for the opera aux Italiens, and the comic opera. He was the director of a company of itinerant actors which followed Marshal Saxe into Flanders. His wife, Madame Favart, was a famous singer, comic actress, and dancer, and participated in the composition of her husband's plays.
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Sir Charles Fellows was an English traveller and antiquarian. He was born in 1799 at Nottingham and died in 1860. He first explored the valley of the Xanthus in Lycia, in 1838, and discovered the remains of the cities Xanthus and Teos. Under the auspices of the trustees of the British Museum he made further explorations in 1839 and 1841, and succeeded in obtaining the marbles now in the Lycian saloon of the Museum. He was knighted by queen Victoria in 1845. His principal works are: Travels and Researches in Asia Minor, and Coins of Ancient Lycia before the Reign of Alexander.
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Charles J Folger was an American jurist and politician. He was born in 1818 and died in 1884. He was chairman of the Judiciary Committee of the New York Senate from 1861 to 1869, and was appointed by President Grant assistant treasurer in New York City from 1869 to 1870. He was made Associate Judge of the State Court of Appeals in 1871, Chief Justice in 1880, and Secretary of the Treasury in Arthur's Cabinet from 1881 to 1884. In 1882, as Republican candidate for Governor of New York, he received a remarkable defeat at the hands of Cleveland.
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Charles Foster was an American politician. He was a Republican governor of Ohio from 1880 until 1884.
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Francois Marie Charles Fourier was a French socialist writer. He was born in 1772 at Besangon and died in 1837. He studied in the college of Besangon, and subsequently at Rouen and Lyons occupied subordinate situations in mercantile houses. At Lyons he entered into business on his own account, but lost all his money from the tumults of war and was forced to enlist in the revolutionary army. Discharged in 1795 on account of ill-health he returned to commerce, filling quite subordinate situations, until he died. He wrote his books in his leisure hours and published them out of his scant savings. His first book, Theorie des Quatre Mouvem cutset des Destinees Generales, was published in 1808; the Traite de 1'Association Domestique Agricole, his most important work, in 1822; but it was not until the last years of his life that they attracted any notice.
In his social system Fourier holds that the operations of industry should be carried on by Phalansteries, or associations of 1800 members combining their labour on a district of about a square league in extent, under the control of governors elected by each community. In the distribution a certain minimum is first assigned for the subsistence of every member of the society, whether capable or not of labour. The remainder of the produce is shared in certain proportions to be previously determined among the three elements, labour, capital, and talent. The capital of the community may be owned in unequal shares by different members, who would in that case receive, as in any other joint-stock concern, proportional dividends. The claim of each person on the share of the produce apportioned to talent is estimated by the grade which the individual occupies in the several groups of labourers to which he or she belongs, these grades being in every case conferred by the voice of his or her companions. The remuneration received would not of necessity be expended in common. Separate rooms or sets of rooms would be set aside for those who applied for them, no other system of living together being contemplated than such as would effect a saving of labour in building and the processes of domestic life, and reducing the enormous portion of the produce of industry at present carried off by middlemen and distributing traders to the narrowest possible margin.
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Charles James Fox was an English statesman. He was born in 1749 and died in 1806. The second son of Henry, first Lord Holland, he was sent to Eton, and subsequently removed to Hertford College, Oxford. His father procured him a seat in the borough of Midhurst in 1768, before he was of legal age, and in 1770 he was appointed one of the lords of the admiralty, which he resigned in 1772, and was appointed a commissioner of the treasury. After being a supporter of the administration for six years, a quarrel with Lord North threw Fox into the ranks of the Whig opposition, where along with Burke and others, he steadily assailed the government, especially on the score of their American policy. In 1780 he was elected member for Westminster, and on the defeat of the administration of Lord North, and the accession of that of the arquis of Rockingham, he obtained the office of secretary of state for foreign affairs in 1782.
The death of the Marquis of Rockingham divided the party and when the Earl of Shelburne became prime minister, Fox retired. He subsequently led a strong opposition to the Pitt government and supported the efforts of Wilberforce against the slave trade and moved the repeal of the Test and and Corporation Acts. He welcomed the breaking out of the French Revolution, and his views on this subject led to a memorable break between him and his old friend Burke. Charles Fox firmly opposed the principle on which the war against France was begun, and strenuously argued for peace on every occasion; but eventually, on becoming secretary for foreign affairs in 1806, acquiesced in its propriety. His health, which had been impaired by his loose manner of living, now began rapidly to decline, and he died the same year a few months after the death of Pitt, his great rival.
As a powerful and purely argumentative orator he was of the very first class; although as to eloquence and brilliancy he perhaps yielded to Pitt, Burke, and Sheridan; nor were his voice and manner prepossessing, although highly forcible. He was of an amiable nature, and a sincere friend to all broad and liberal principles of government, His History of the Early Part of the Reign of James II was published posthumously.
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Sir Charles Henry Frankland was the collector of the port of Boston from 1741 to 1757. He was born in 1716 and died in 1768. He is noted on account of his romantic connection with Agnes Surriage, a maid at a Massachusetts tavern, who afterward became Lady Frankland. He was a man of great wealth, and lived in a state of luxury unusual in colonial times.
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Prince Charles Frederick, known as the 'Red Prince', was a German prince. He was born in 1828 and died in 1885. He was nephew to the Emperor William I, and gained fame for his military exploits during the wars of 1866 and 1870. Sadowa, Thionville, Gravelotte, and St Privat are among his chief achievements.
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Charles Goldsborough was an American politician. He was a Federalist governor of Maryland during 1819.
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Charles Goodyear was an American inventor. He was born in 1800 at Connecticut and died in 1860. By persistent experiment he discovered the vulcanising process by which he rendered India-rubber useful.
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Charles Francois Gounod was a French composer. He was born in 1818 at Paris and died in 1893.
He studied at the Conservatoire under Jacques Halevy, Lesueur, and Pauer, and afterwards in Italy. His first important work was Faust (produced in 1859), which raised him to a high rank among composers. Other operas followed, among which are Mireille (1864), Romeo et Juliette, Cinq Mars (1877), and Polyeucete (1878). He wrote also a Messe Solennelle, a motet Gallia, and other choral works and songs; oratorios Redemption (1882), Mors et Vita (1885), and a Mass for the Jeanne D'Aro festival (1887).
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Charles Grey (Earl Grey) was a British soldier. He was born in 1729 and died in 1807. A major-general, he accompanied Howe from England in 1775, surprised and defeated General Wayne's force near the Schuylkill on September the 20th, 1777, had a command at Germantown and Tappan, and destroyed the shipping and stores at New Bedford in 1778.
Charles Grey (Ear Grey) was an English statesman. He was born in 1764 and died in 1845. The eldest son of Charles Grey, the first earl Grey, he was educated at Eton and at King's College, Cambridge. In 1786 he was returned to parliament as member for Northumberland. On the accession of the Grenville ministry in 1806, Charles Grey, now Lord Howick, was made first lord of the admiralty, and on the death of Fox succeeded him as secretary for foreign affairs and leader of the House of Commons. The death of his father in 1807 raised him to the House of Peers, and from this period up to 1830 he beaded the opposition in the Lords, and especially opposed the proceedings against Queen Caroline. On the accession of William IV and the retirement of the Wellington ministry, Earl Grey was summoned to office. The great event which marks his administration is the passing in 1832 of the first reform bill. In 1834 Earl Grey resigned, and was succeeded by Lord Melbourne. The remainder of his life was chiefly spent in retirement.
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Charles Griffin was an American soldier. He was born in 1836 and died in 1867. He fought at Bull Run, had commands at Malvern Hill, Antietam, Fredericksburg and Gettysburg, took a prominent part in Grant's Peninsular campaign, and was made major-general in the US army in 1865.
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Charles H Bell was an American politician. He was a Republican governor of New Hampshire from 1881 until 1883.
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Charles H Dietrich was an American politician. He was a Republican governor of Nebraska during 1901.
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Charles H Hardin was an American politician. He was a Democratic governor of Missouri from 1875 until 1877.
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Charles H Martin was an American politician. He was a Democratic governor of Oregon from 1935 until 1939.
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Charles H Russell was an American politician. He was a Republican governor of Nevada from 1951 until 1959.
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Charles H Sawyer was an American politician. He was a Republican governor of New Hampshire from 1887 until 1889.
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Charles H Sheldon was an American politician. He was a Republican governor of South Dakota from 1893 until 1897.
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Charles Francis Hall was an American explorer. He was born in 1821 at Rochester, New Hampshire and died in 1871. He began life as a blacksmith, became a journalist in Cincinnati; in 1860 organized an Arctic expedition in search of Franklin, and remained amongst the Esquimaux two years, acquiring their language and habits. In 1864 he undertook a second expedition to the same regions, where he remained until 1869.
In 1871, at the instigation of Charles Hall, the US government fitted out the Polaris for an expedition to the North Pole, and placed Captain Francis Hall in command. The Polaris sailed from New York on June the 29th, 1871, and on the 30th of August reached latitude 82 degrees 16 minutes North, and then turned back to winter in a sheltered bay at latitude 81 degrees 38 minutes, where Francis Hall died on November the 8th. The Polaris was ultimately abandoned by her crew, who reached home only after experiencing many privations and adventures. An account of his first expedition was given by Captain Francis Hall in his Arctic .Researches and Life amongst the Esquimaux.
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Sir Charles Halle was a German-born British pianist and conductor. He was born in 1819 at Hagen, Westphalia and died in 1895. The son of a musician he studied music in Germany and France before settling in Paris in 1836 where he instituted concerts of chamber music. In 1848 he went to Britain where in Manchester in 1893 he founded the Royal College of Music, of which he was the first principal. In 1888 he was knighted after being nationalised as a British citizen.
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Charles Henderson was an American politician. He was a Democratic governor of Alabama from 1915 until 1919.
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Charles Hillman Brough was an American politician. He was a Democratic governor of Arkansas from 1917 until 1921.
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Charles Hodge was an American theologist. He was born in 1797 at Philadelphia and died in 1878. He graduated at Princeton College in 1815, and was professor of theology at Princeton from 1822 to 1878, founded the Princeton Review which he edited until it was combined with the Presbyterian Quarterly in 1871. He was author of a 'Systematic Theology', and of great influence upon Presbyterian theological thought.
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Charles Fenno Hoffman was an American poet and lyricist. He was born in 1806 at New York and died in 1884. He worked on the editorial side at the Knickerbocker Magazine, the American Monthly Magazine and the Literary World. He was an author of poems and popular songs, and wrote 'The Administration of Jacob Leisler' and 'The Pioneers of New York'.
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Charles Hutton was an English mathematician. He was born in 1737 and died in 1823. He was first a teacher of mathematics at Newcastle, but having published in 1772 a small work on the Principles of Bridges, which attracted attention, he was next year appointed professor of mathematics at Woolwich College. In 1785 he published his Mathematical Tables, followed not long after by his Tracts, Mathematical and Philosophical, and Elements of Conic Sections. His Mathematical and Philosophical Dictionary appeared in 1795-96; his Course of Mathematics in 1798, with an additional volume in 1811. In 1812 he published another collection of Tracts on mathematical and philosophical subjects.
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Charles I was King of England from 1625 to 1649. He was born in 1600 at Dunfermline and died in 1649. He was the third son of James VI and Anne of Denmark. He married Henrietta Maria, daughter of Henry IV of France, and in 1625 succeeded to the throne, receiving the kingdom embroiled in a Spanish war. The first parliament which he summoned, being more disposed to state grievances than grant supplies, was dissolved. Next year, 1626, a new parliament was summoned; but the House proved no more tractable than before, and was soon dissolved.
Charles I was a shy, aloof man who lacked the qualities necessary to make him a successful ruler. Parliament refused to grant him taxes for his wars against France and Spain and he raised money by other means such as forced loans. His third Parliament criticised his management of the wars and condemned his illegal taxation, whereupon he dissolved Parliament and for the next eleven years governed without it. In 1640 Charles was forced to call Parliament to pay for his war against the Scots on whom he was trying to impose an Anglican prayer book. Parliament overturned many of Charles's policies but had no wish to overthrow the King. However, Charles's attempt to arrest five leading members of the House of Commons, and a Roman Catholic rebellion in Ireland helped to push the King and Parliament apart and in 1642 civil war broke out.
By 1647 the King's army had been defeated. Attempts were made to reach a settlement but after Charles's escape and a renewal of the war, the leaders of the Parliamentary army determined that the King should be put on trial. In January 1649 he was tried for waging war on his people, condemned to death and executed at Whitehall in London.
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Charles II was King of England, Ireland and Scotland from 1660 to 1685. He was the sone of son of Charles I and Henrietta Maria of France. He was a refugee at the Hague on the death of his father, on which he immediately assumed the royal title. Oliver Cromwell was then all-powerful in England; but Charles II accepted an invitation from the Scots, who had proclaimed him their king in July, 1650, and, passing over to Scotland, he was crowned at Scone in 1651. Oliver Cromwell's approach made him take refuge amongst the English royalists, who, having gathered an army, encountered Oliver Cromwell at Worcester, and were totally defeated. With great difficulty Charles II escaped to France. On the death of Oliver Cromwell the Restoration effected without a struggle by General Monk set Charles on the throne after the declaration of Breda, his entry into the capital on the 29th of May, 1660 being made amidst universal acclamations.
Despite the bitterness left from the Civil Wars and Charles I's execution, there were few detailed negotiations over the conditions of Charles II's restoration to the throne. Under the Declaration of Breda of May 1660, Charles had promised pardons, arrears of Army pay, confirmation of land purchases during the Interregnum and 'liberty of tender consciences' in religious matters, but several issues remained unresolved. However, the Militia Act of 1661 vested control of the armed forces in the Crown, and Parliament agreed to an annual revenue of 1, 200,000 pounds. The bishops were restored to their seats in the House of Lords, and the Triennial Act of 1641 was repealed - there was no mechanism for enforcing the King's obligation to call Parliament at least once every three years.
Under the 1660 Act of Indemnity and Oblivion, only the lands of the Crown and the Church were automatically resumed; the lands of Royalists and other dissenters which had been confiscated and/or sold on were left for private negotiation or litigation.
In 1662 Charles II married the Infanta of Portugal, Catharine of Bra-ganza, a prudent and virtuous princess, but in no way calculated to acquire the affection of a man like Charles. For a time his measures, mainly counselled by the chancellor Lord Clarendon, were prudent and conciliatory. But the indolence, extravagance, and licentious habits of the king soon involved the nation as well as himself in difficulties. Dunkirk was sold to the French to relieve his pecuniary embarrassment, and war broke out with Holland. A Dutch fleet entered the Thames, and burned and destroyed ships as far up as Chatham. The early years of Charles's reign saw an appalling plague which hit the country in 1665 with 70,000 dying in London alone, and the Great Fire of London in 1666 which destroyed St Paul's amongst other buildings. Another misfortune included the second Dutch war of 1665 (born of English and Dutch commercial and colonial rivalry). Although the Dutch settlement of New Amsterdam was overrun and renamed New York before the war started, by 1666 France and Denmark had allied with the Dutch. The war was dogged by poor administration culminating in a Dutch attack on the Thames in 1667; a peace was negotiated later in the year.
In 1667, Charles dismissed his Lord Chancellor, Clarendon - an adviser from Charles's days of exile. As a scapegoat for the difficult religious settlement and the Dutch war, Clarendon had failed to build a 'Court interest' in the Commons. Clarendon was dismissed, and was succeeded by a series of ministerial combinations, the first of which was that of Clifford, Ashley, Buckingham, Arlington and Lauderdale. Such combinations (except for Danby's dominance of Parliament from 1673 to 1679) were largely kept in balance by Charles for the rest of his reign. Charles's foreign policy was a wavering balance of alliances with France and the Dutch in turn.
A triple alliance between England, Holland, and Sweden, for the purpose of checking the ambition of Louis XIV, followed; but the extravagance of the king made him willing to become a mere pensioner of Louis XIV, with whom he arranged a private treaty against Holland in 1670 - the secret treaty of Dover under which Charles would declare himself a Catholic and England would side with France against the Dutch, in return Charles would receive subsidies from the King of France (thus enabling Charles some limited room for manoeuvre with Parliament, but leaving the possibility of public disclosure of the treaty by Louis). Practical considerations prevented such a public conversion, but Charles issued a Declaration of Indulgence, using his prerogative powers to suspend the penal laws against Catholics and Nonconformists. In the face of an Anglican Parliament's opposition, Charles was eventually forced to withdraw the Declaration in 1673.
The Cabal ministry was by this time in power, and they were quite ready to break the triple alliance and bring about a rupture with the Dutch. As the king did not choose to apply to parliament for money to carry on the projected war he caused the exchequer to be shut up in January, 1672, and by several other disgraceful and arbitrary proceedings gave great disgust and alarm to the nation. The war ended in failure, and the Cabal ministry was dissolved in 1673.
In 1677 Charles married his niece Mary to William of Orange partly to restore the balance after his brother's second marriage to the Catholic Mary of Modena and to re-establish his own Protestant credentials. This assumed a greater importance as it became clear that Charles's marriage to Catherine of Braganza would produce no legitimate heirs (although Charles had a number of mistresses and illegitimate children) , and his Roman Catholic brother James's position as heir apparent raised the prospect of a Catholic king.
Throughout Charles's reign, religious toleration dominated the political scene. The 1662 Act of Uniformity had imposed the use of the Book of Common Prayer, and insisted that clergy subscribe to Anglican doctrine (some 1,000 clergy lost their livings). Anti-Catholicism was widespread; the Test Act of 1673 excluded Roman Catholics from both Houses of Parliament. Parliament's reaction to the Popish Plot of 1678 (an allegation by Titus Oates that Jesuit priests were conspiring to murder the King, and involving the Queen and the Lord Treasurer, Danby) was to impeach Danby and present a Bill to exclude James (Charles's younger brother and a Roman Catholic convert) from the succession.
In 1679 the Habeas Corpus Act was passed, and the temper of the parliament was so much excited that the king dissolved it. A new parliament which assembled in 1680 had to be dissolved for a like reason, and yet another which met the year following at Oxford. Finally Charles, like his father, determined to govern without a parliament, and after the suppression of the Rye House plot and the execution of Russell and Sidney Charles became as absolute as any sovereign in Europe.
Charles sponsored the founding of the Royal Society in 1660 to promote scientific research. Charles also encouraged a rebuilding programme, particularly in the last years of his reign, which included extensive rebuilding at Windsor Castle, a huge but uncompleted new palace at Winchester and the Greenwich Observatory. Charles was a patron of Christopher Wren in the design and rebuilding of St Paul's Cathedral, Chelsea Hospital and other London buildings. Charles II died in 1685, becoming a Roman Catholic on his deathbed.
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Charles J Ingersoll was an American politician. He was born in 1782 and died in 1862. He represented Pennsylvania in the US Congress as a Democrat from 1813 to 1815 and from 1841 to 1847. He was District Attorney from 1815 to 1829. He wrote a history of the War of 1812.
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Charles IV was King of Spain. He was born in 1748 at Naples and died in 1819. He succeeded his brother Ferdinand VI to the throne in 1788, was all his life completely under the influence of his wife and her paramour Godoy. In 1808 Charles IV abdicated in favour of Napoleon.
Charles IV was Emperor of Germany. He was born in 1316 and died in 1378. Of the house of Luxemburg, he was the son of King John of Bohemia. In 1346 he was elected emperor by five of the electoral princes, while the actual emperor Louis the Bavarian was still alive. On the death of the latter a part of the electors elected Count Gunther of Schwarzburg, who soon after died; and Charles IV at length won over his enemies, and was elected and consecrated emperor at Aix-la-Chapelle. In 1354 he went to Italy and was crowned king of Italy at Milan, and emperor at Rome the year following. On his return to Germany in 1356 Charles issued his Golden Bull regulating the election of the German emperors.
Charles IV was artful, but vacillating, and careless of all interests but those of his own family and his hereditary kingdom of Bohemia. In Germany bands of robbers plundered the country, and the fiefs of the empire were alienated. In Italy Charles IV sold states and cities to the highest bidder, or if they themselves offered most, made them independent republics. But Bohemia flourished during his reign. He encouraged trade, industry, and agriculture, made Prague a great city, and established there the first German university in 1348.
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CHARLES IV
Charles IV (Charles le Bel, or Charles the Handsome) was a King of France. He was born in 1294 and died in 1328. He was the third son of Philippe Le Bel, and ascended the throne in 1322. He died in 1328, without male issue, and was the last of the direct line descended from Hugh Capet.
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Charles Ives was an American composer. He was born in 1874 and died in 1954. He composed Concord Sonata, 4 symphonies.
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Charles IX was king of France. He was born in 1550 and died in 1574. He was a son of Henry II and Catherine de Medici. He succeeded to the throne at the age of ten following the death of his brother Francis II, his mother becoming regent and consolidating her power during his reign. Along with the Guises his mother headed the Catholic League against the Calvinists, and her tortuous and unscrupulous policy helped to embitter the religious strife of the factions. After a series of Huguenot persecutions and civil wars a peace was made in 1570, which, two years later, on 24th August, 1572, was treacherously broken by the Massacre of St Bartholomew's. The king, who had been little more than the tool of his scheming mother, died two years afterwards, in 1574.
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Charles J Bell was an American politician. He was a Republican governor of Vermont from 1904 until 1906.
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Charles J Jenkins was an American politician. He was a Democratic governor of Georgia from 1865 until 1868.
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Charles J McDonald was an American politician. He was a Democratic governor of Georgia from 1839 until 1843.
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Charles Jackson was an American politician. He was a Liberation party governor of Rhode Island from 1845 until 1846.
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Charles K Williams was an American politician. He was a Whig governor of Vermont from 1850 until 1852.
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Charles King was a police constable working for Scotland Yard in C Division (St James', London) when in 1855 he was convicted for larceny and receiving - the first Metropolitan policeman convicted of serious criminal corruption. King organised and trained gangs of young boys as pick-pockets, showed them likely targets and kept watch while they stole for him. After conviction King was deported for 14 years.
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Charles Kingsley was an English writer. He was born in 1819 at Holme and died in 1875. He wrote Westward Ho! and The Water Babies.
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Charles L Terry Jr was an American politician. He was a Democratic governor of Delaware from 1965 until 1969.
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Charles Lamb was an English poet. He was born in 1775 at London and died in 1834. He wrote essays under the name of Elia.
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Charles Marie Rene Leconte de Lisle was a French poet. He was born in 1818 and died in 1894.
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Charles Lee was an English soldier. He was born in 1731 and died in 1782. He served in the army at Edward Braddock's defeat and through the French and Indian War. Some years of miscellaneous experiences in the Portuguese service and on the Polish staff, interspersed with pamphleteering, left him a lieutenant-colonel on half-pay. Removing to America in 1773 he contrived to pose as a great military light, and was in 1775 appointed the second in rank of the major-generals. He was at the siege of Boston, commenced the fortifications of New York, and received the credit of the victory at Charleston in 1776. In the autumn campaign of that year he disregarded George Washington's orders to leave Northcastle, and was soon afterward captured at Baskingridge in New Jersey. He had intrigued against George Washington, and it has believed that while in captivity he negotiated with the Howes. He was exchanged in time to receive command of the van at Monmouth where he behaved ignominiously. After the battle he was suspended for disobedience, misbehaviour and disrespect, and was eventually dismissed from the army.
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Sir Charles Lyell was a British geologist. He was born in 1797 at Kinnordy and died in 1875. Educated at Midhurst, Sussex and at Exeter College, Oxford he afterwards entered Lincoln's Inn on being called to the bar. He had an interest in science, and devoted himself to the study of geology, specialising in marine remains of the Tertiary period, travelling widely in Europe studying. Sir Charles Lyell was twice president of the Geological Society and president of the British Association. He was knighted in 1848 and made a baronet in 1864. After he died he was buried at Westminster Abbey.
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Charles Lynch was an American politician. He was a Democratic governor of Mississippi during 1833.
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Charles M Croswell was an American politician. He was a Republican governor of Michigan from 1877 until 1880.
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Charles M Dale was an American politician. He was a Republican governor of New Hampshire from 1945 until 1949.
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Charles M Floyd was an American politician. He was a Republican governor of New Hampshire from 1907 until 1909.
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Charles M Smith was an American politician. He was a Republican governor of Vermont from 1935 until 1937.
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Charles Macintosh was a Scottish chemist. He was born in 1766 and died in 1843. While trying to utilise the coal-naptha given off in distilling tar, he discovered a process of dissolving India-rubber and waterproofing cloth. He patented the invention in 1823, and the Mackintosh was created.
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Charles Mackay was a Scottish journalist and song writer. He was born in 1814 at Perth and died in 1889. From 1844 to 1847 he edited the 'Glasgow Argus' and in 1852 the 'London Illustrated News'. During the American Civil War he was war correspondent for the Times, but he achieved contemporary fame as a song writer.
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Charles Manly was an American politician. He was a Whig governor of North Carolina from 1849 until 1851.
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Charles Manson was an American pseudo-occultist and murderer. He was born in 1934 and sentenced to death in 1971, though he was still in prison in 2001. He was the leader of a Californian commune of hippies calling themselves 'Satan's Slaves', which became known following their murder of Sharon Tate and others as 'Manson's Family'.
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Charles Martel was a ruler of the Franks. He was a son of Pepin Heristal. His father had governed as mayor of the palace under the weak Frankish kings with so much justice that he was enabled to make his office hereditary in his family. Chilperic II, king of the Franks, refusing to acknowledge Charles Martel as mayor of the palace, the latter deposed him, and set Clothaire IV in his place. After the death of Clothaire he restored Chilperic, and subsequently placed Thierri on the throne. Charles Martel rendered his rule famous by the great victory which he gained in October, 732, over the Saracens, near Tours, from which he acquired the name of Martel, signifying hammer. He died in 741.
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Charles Mason was an English surveyor. He was born in 1730 and died in 1787. He was commissioned together with Jeremiah Dixon from 1763 to 1767 to survey the boundary line between Pennsylvania and Maryland, USA, famous as marking the boundary between the free and the slave States.
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Charles Mathews was an English comedian. He was born in 1776 at London and died in 1835. He appeared at the Haymarket, London in 1803 and thereafter constantly performed in London and elsewhere. In 1808 he began his ' At Homes' act which included recitals, songs, imitations and ventriloquism which proved popular in England and America.
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Charles G Memminger was an American politician. He was born in 1803 at Germany and died in 1888. He moved from Germany to South Carolina and was subsequently Secretary of the Treasury in the government of the Confederate States.
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Charles Middleton (Lord Barham) was a British sailor. He was born in 1726 at Leith and died in 1813. After entering the navy, he was promoted to lieutenant in 1745 and was controller of the navy from 1778 until 1790. He was made an admiral in 1795 and in 1805 was made the first Baron of Barham and appointed First Lord of the Admiralty, a post he held for just a year but while in office was responsible for some of the prompt measures taken against the French before the Battle of Trafalgar.
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Charles Montage (Earl of Halifax) was an English poet and statesman. He was born in 1661 and died in 1715. He was educated at Westminster School and Trinity College, Cambridge. He first attracted notice by his verses, and in 1687 wrote in conjunction with Matthew Prior, The Town and Country Mouse. He entered the House of Commons as member for Maiden during the Convention Parliament, became a lord of the treasury in 1692, and chancellor of the exchequer in 1694. His administration was distinguished by the adoption of the funded debt system, and by the establishment of the Bank of England. In 1700 he was raised to the peerage as Baron Halifax, was twice impeached by the House of Commons, and remained out of office during the reign of Anne. Having taken an active part in securing the succession of the house of Brunswick, George I created him an earl, and bestowed on him the order of the Garter. He became first lord of the treasury in 1714. His character was a mixture of meanness and arrogance, but his taste in literature and the arts was good, and he had a great talent for finance.
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Charles N Haskell was an American politician. He was a Democratic governor of Oklahoma from 1907 until 1911.
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Charles N Herreid was an American politician. He was a Republican governor of South Dakota from 1901 until 1905.
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Charles Negre was a French photographer. He was born in 1820 and died in 1880. Originally a painter, he turned to photography after learning the waxed paper process from Gustave Le Gray in 1851. He began by producing everyday street scenes as studies for his paintings but soon embarked on a series of documentary projects which included studies of Chartres Cathedral, Provence, and the Imperial Asylum at Vincennes.
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Charles O'Conor was an American jurist. He was born in 1804 at New York and died in 1884. He was admitted to the bar at the age of twenty. He sympathized with the Confederates during the American Civil War. He was nominated for President of the United States by the Labor Reform branch of the Democratic party in 1872. He was counsel for Jefferson Davis when he was indicted for treason. He was largely the means of destroying the 'Tweed Ring', and was noted as a lawyer.
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Charles Nicolas Oudinot was a French soldier. He was born in 1767 at Bar-le-Duc and died in 1847. He joined the army in 1784 but soon retired. Upon the outbreak of the French revolution he rejoined the army, becoming a general in 1794. He was Duke of Reggio and became Marshal of France in 1809.
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Charles Paine was an American politician. He was a Whig governor of Vermont from 1841 until 1843.
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Charles Stewart Parnell was an Irish nationalist politician. He was born in 1846 at Avondale and died in 1891.
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Charles Wilson Peale was an American painter. He was born in 1741 and died in 1827. He studied in London with the American-born historical painter Benjamin West in 1767 and settled permanently in Philadelphia in 1776. Peale painted notable portraits of many military leaders, including fourteen of George Washington. He was also an enthusiastic naturalist and in 1786 established a museum of specimens in Independence Hall, Philadelphia. In 1805 he helped found Philadelphia's Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts. One of Peale's best-known works is his life-size trompe l'oeil portrait of two of his sons.
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Charles Sanders Peirce was an American philosopher and physicist. He was born in 1839 at Cambridge, Massachusetts and died in 1914. He was educated at Harvard University. In 1861 Peirce was appointed to the US Coast Survey. Between 1864 and 1884 he lectured intermittently on logic and philosophy at Johns Hopkins and Harvard universities, and in 1877 he became the first American representative to the International Geodetic Congress. In 1861 Peirce began a series of experiments with pendulums that contributed greatly to the determination of the density and shape of the earth, and also an investigation of the measurement of light waves. In 1867 he turned his attention to the system of logic created by the British logician and mathematician George Boole, and he worked on extending and transforming Boolean algebra until 1885. Peirce is perhaps best known for his philosophical system, later called pragmatism.
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Charles Perrault was a French writer. He was born in 1628 at Paris and died in 1703.
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Charles Pettit was an American politician. He was born in 1736 and died in 1806. He was secretary of New Jersey from 1772 to 1778. He was assistant quartermaster-general of the Continental army from 1778 to 1783. He represented Pennsylvania in the Continental Congress from 1785 to 1787.
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Charles Cotesworth Pinckney was an American politician. He was born in 1746 at Charleston, South Carolina and died in 1825. Educated in England at Westminster School and Christ Church, Oxford, he studied law at the Middle Temple and afterwards practised in his home town. After serving in the American War of Independence with the ramk of major he took part in the Constitutional Convention of 1787 and was responsible for the clause abolishing religious tests as a qualification for office. A strong federalist, he was a supporter of slavery, a governor of South Carolina from 1789 until 1792 and twice an unsuccessful candidate for president.
Charles Pinckney was an American politician. He was born in 1758 and died in 1824. A cousin of Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, he was a member of the South Carolina Legislature from 1779 to 1780. He was a delegate to the Continental Congress from 1777 to 1778 and from 1784 to 1787. He was a member of the Constitutional Convention of 1787, and drafted one of the constitutions proposed. He was Governor of South Carolina from 1789 to 1792 and from 1796 to 1798, a US Senator from 1797 to 1801, Minister to Spain from. 1803 to 1805, Governor from 1806 to 1808. He was a Democratic US Congressman from 1819 to 1821.
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Charles Poletti was an American politician. He was a Democratic governor of New York during 1942.
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Charles Polk was an American politician. He was a Federalist governor of Delaware from 1827 until 1830.
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Charles T C Pollen was a German-born American linguist. He was born in 1796 and died in 1840. Born in Germany, he went to America in 1824, and from 1825 to 1834 was professor of German at Harvard College. He was an ardent anti-slavery advocate.
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Charles R Mabey was an American politician. He was a Republican governor of Utah from 1921 until 1925.
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Charles R Miller was an American politician. He was a Republican governor of Delaware from 1913 until 1917.
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Charles Reade was a British novelist and dramatist. He was born in 1814 at Ipsden and died in 1884. Educated at Magdalen College, Oxford, he became a fellow of that society and a barrister, but soon turned to literature. He began with writing plays, the first being put upon the stage in 1851. He wrote the 1861 novel 'The Cloister and the Hearth' which made his reputation.
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Charles Richardson was an English writer. He was born in 1775 and died in 1865. He was trained as a barrister, but devoted himself to literature. In 1815 he published Illustrations of English Philology. In 1818 he undertook the lexicographical articles in the Encyclopaedia Metropolitana, and afterwards published his great work, A New Dictionary of the English Language. He also wrote a work on the Study of Languages in 1854, and contributed frequently to the Gentleman's and other magazines.
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Charles Ridgely was an American politician. He was a Federalist governor of Maryland from 1816 until 1819.
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Charles Robinson was an American politician. He was born in born in 1818 and died in 1894. He had a prominent part in the early struggles of the Forty-niners in California. In 1856 he was elected Governor of Kansas by the Free-State party under the Topeka Constitution, and again under the Wyandotte Constitution in 1859.
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Charles S Deneen was an American politician. He was a Republican governor of Illinois from 1905 until 1913.
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Charles S Morehead was an American politician. He was a Know-Nothing governor of Kentucky from 1855 until 1859.
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Charles S Olden was an American politician. He was a Republican governor of New Jersey from 1860 until 1863.
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Charles S Robb was an American politician. He was a Democratic governor of Virginia from 1982 until 1986.
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Charles S Thomas was an American politician. He was a Democratic governor of Colorado from 1899 until 1901.
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Charles S Whitman was an American politician. He was a Republican governor of New York from 1915 until 1918.
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Charles Augustin Saint-Beuve was a French critic and guide to the Romantic movement. He was born in 1804 at Boulogne and died in 1869. He started a new school of criticism based upon the study of history and of all sources of information bearing on his subject.
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Charles Scott was an American politician. He was a Democratic-Republican governor of Kentucky from 1808 until 1812.
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Charles Piazzi Smyth was a British astronomer. He was born in 1819 at Naples and died in 1900. Educated at Bedford Grammar School, he became assistant at the Royal Observatory at the Cape of Good Hope in 1835. While at the Royal Observatory he observed the great comets of 1836 and 1843, and in 1845 was appointed astronomer royal for Scotland. He carried out a number of important researches into spectroscopy and introduced the use of the rain band into meteorology.
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Charles Sprague was an American poet. He was born in 1791 and died in 1875. He was cashier of the Globe Bank, in Boston, from 1824 to 1865 but achieved distinction for his poems. He wrote a 'Shakespeare Ode', 'The Brothers' and 'The Family Meeting'.
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Charles Haddon Spurgeon was a British preacher. He was born in 1834 at Kelvedon, Essex and died in 1892. The son of an independent minister he worked for a time as a schoolmaster at Newmarket. Having joined the Baptist denomination, in 1852 he became minister of a Baptist chapel at Waterbeach, where he proved popular and was invited to a church at Southwark. There his preaching attracted large crowds and eventually the Metropolitant Tabernacle was built for him in 1861. There he continued to preach until his death.
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Charles Stanhope (3rd Earl Stanhope) was an English politician and scientist. He was born in 1753 at London and died in 1816. Educated at Eton and Geneva, he showed a taste for science at an early age and made numerous experiments regarding the application of steam to ships, invented a printing press - known as the Stanhope press, invented a microscopic lens and constructed calculating machines. Politically he was revolutionary, opposed the slave trade, opposed the war against France - which earned for him the nickname 'Citizen Stanhope - and was a supporter of education and electoral and fiscal reforms.
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Charles Butt Stanton was a Welsh politician. He was born in 1873 at Aberaman. A miner and docker, he was appointed a miners' agent and came to prominence as a labour leader in the Rhondda strikes and riots. On the outbreak of the Great War he prominently advocated Britain's cause and in 1915 was elected MP for Merthyr Tydfil.
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Charles P Stone was an American soldier. He was born in 1824 and died in 1887. He served with honour during the Mexican War. He led a brigade in General Patterson's Shenandoah campaign in 1861. While commanding the corps of observation in the Army of the Potomac from 1861 to 1862, he was defeated at Ball's Bluff. He served at Port Hudson in 1863, and was chief of staff to General Banks from 1863 to 1864.
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Charles Edward Stuart, called the Pretender, was the grandson of James II king of England, son of James Edward and Clementina, daughter of Prince Sobiesld. He was born in 1720 at Rome and died in 1788. In 1742 he went to Paris and persuaded Louis XV to assist him in an attempt to recover the throne of his ancestors. Fifteen thousand men were on the point of sailing from Dunkirk, when the English admiral Norris dispersed the whole fleet. Charles Stuart now determined to trust to his own exertions. Accompanied by seven officers he landed on the west coast of Scotland, from a small ship called the Doutelle. Many Lowland nobles and Highland chiefs went over to his party. With a small army thus formed he marched forward, captured Perth, then Edinburgh on September the 17th 1745, defeated an army of 4000 British under Sir John Cope at Prestonpans on September the 22nd, and advancing obtained possession of Carlisle., He now caused his father to be proclaimed King, and himself Regent of England; removed his head-quarters to Manchester, and soon found himself within 100 miles of London, where many of his friends awaited his arrival. The rapid successes of the adventurer now caused a part of the British forces in Germany to be recalled. Want of support, disunion, and jealousy among the adherents of the house of Stuart, some errors, and the superior force opposed to him, compelled Prince Charles Stuart to retire in the beginning of 1746. The victory at Falkirk on January the 28th, 1746 was his last. As a final attempt he risked the battle of Culloden against the Duke of Cumberland, on April the 16th, 1746, in which his army was defeated and entirely dispersed.
The prince now wandered about for a long time through the wilds of Scotland, often without food, and the price of 30,000 pounds sterling was set upon his head. At length, on September the 20th, 1746, five months after the defeat of Culloden, he escaped in a French frigate. He received a pension of 200,000 livres yearly from France, and of 12,000 doubloons from Spain. Forced to leave France by the terms of the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle of 1748 he went to Italy, and in 1772 married a princess of Stolberg-Gedern, from whom eight years later he was separated.. He latterly fell into habits of intoxication, and he died Jan. 31, 1788, and was buried at Frascati. After his death, his funeral service was performed by his only surviving brother, the Cardinal of York, with whose death in 1807 the Stuart line ended. The cardinal received a pension from Britain of £4000 a year until his death.
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Charles Sumner was an American statesman and anti-slavery campaigner. He was born in 1811 at Boston and died in 1874. Educated at Harvard, he was called to the Bar in 1834 and elected to the Senate in 1851. On returning from an extended Buropean tour, from 1837 to 1840, he became profoundly interested in the anti-slavery question, and devoted the next few years of his life to the abolition of slavery and was an impressive speaker on the subject.
In 1846, Charles Sumner, who had been a moderate Whig, helped organize the Free-Soil party in 1848, and was defeated for Congress the same year. In 1851, after a prolonged struggle of three months in the Massachusetts Legislature, he was elected US Senator by a coalition of Democrats and Free-Soilers. He speedily became the chief advocate in the Senate of the anti-slavery sentiment. His speech, 'Freedom National, Slavery Sectional', gave the signal of his course. That on the 'Crime against Kansas', in May, 1856, provoked a personal assault from a Southern Representative, Preston Brooks. Sumner was severely injured, and did not resume his seat until 1859.
He was meanwhile re-elected Senator as a Republican, and re-elected twice, serving until his death. In 1861 he became chairman of the Committee of Foreign Affairs and was one of the chief friends and advisers of President Abraham Lincoln. He opposed Johnson, but supported the Alaska purchase. In 1871 he strongly opposed the San Domingo Treaty, broke with President Grant and the Republican Senators, and was removed from his chairmanship. He supported Horace Greeley in 1872, and gave his closing efforts to the furtherance of the civil rights of coloured citizens.
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Charles T O'Ferrall was an American politician. He was a Democratic governor of Virginia from 1894 until 1898.
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Sir Charles Tennant was a Scottish merchant. He was born in 1823 at Glasgow and died in 1906. Educated at Glasgow in 1846 he joined his father in the chemical works at St Rollox that had been founded by his grandfather, Charles Tennant. From 1878 until 1886 he was a member of Parliament representing Glasgow and Peebles and Selkirk, and in 1885 was made a baronet.
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Charles Tennyson-Turner was an English poet. He was born in 1808 at Somersby, Lincolnshire and died in 1879. An older brother of Alfred Tennyson, he was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge and became vicar of Grasby, Lincolnshire. He assumed the name Turner upon succeeding to the estate of an uncle.
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Charles Abbott Tenterden (Baron Tenterden) was an English lawyer. He was born in 1762 at Canterbury and died in 1832. Educated at King's School, Canterbury and Corpus Christi, Oxford, he entered the Middle Temple in 1787 and practised at the bar before being called from the Inner Temple in 1796. He gained a reputation as an authority on marine and mercantile law and was appointed a judge in 1816 and lord chief justice in 1818. He was made a peer in 1827.
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Charles I, (Charles Le Chauve, or Charles the Bald) was a King of France. He was born in 823 and died in 877. He was son of Louis le Debonnaire. After his father's death in 840 he fought with his half-brother Lothaire for the empire of the Franks, and finally acquired by the Treaty of Verdun in 843 all those territories between the ocean on the one part, and the Meuse, the Scheldt, the Saone, the Rhone, and the Mediterranean, on the other. But he lost Southern Aquitaine to his nephew Pepin, and had to divide Lorraine with his brother Louis the German. In 875 he was crowned emperor by Pope John VIII.
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Charles the Bold was Duke of Burgundy. He was born in 1433 at Dijon. He was the son of Philip the Good and Isabella of Portugal. While his father yet lived Charles left Burgundy, and forming an alliance with some of the great French nobles for the purpose of preserving the power of the feudal nobility, he marched on Paris with 20,000 men, defeated Louis XI at Montlheri, and won the counties of Boulogne, Guines, and Ponthieu. Succeeding his father in 1467 he commenced his reign by severe repression of the citizens of Liege and Ghent.
In 1468 he married Margaret of York, sister of Edward IV of England. Liege having rebelled, the duke stormed and sacked the town. In 1470 the war with France was renewed, and although the duke was forced to sue for a truce he soon took up arms anew, and, crossing the Somme, stormed and fired the city of Nesle. Louis meanwhile involved him in greater embarrassments by exciting against him Austria and the Swiss. Charles, ever ready to take up a quarrel, threw himself on Germany with characteristic fury, and lost ten months in a futile siege of Neuss. He was successful, however, in conquering Lorraine from Duke Rene.
Charles now turned his arms against the Swiss, took the city of Granson, putting 800 men to the sword. But this cruelty was speedily avenged by the descent of a Swiss army, which at the first shock routed the duke's forces at Granson, on March the 3rd, 1476. Mad with rage and shame Charles gathered another army, invaded Switzerland, and was again defeated with great loss at Moral. The Swiss, led by the Duke of Lorraine, now undertook the reconquest of Lorraine, and obtained possession of Nancy. Charles marched to recover it, but was utterly routed and himself slain. The house of Burgundy ended in him, and his death Without male heirs removed the greatest of those independent feudal lords whose power stood in the way of the growth of the French monarchy. His daughter Mary married Maximilian of Germany, but most of his French territory passed into the hands of the French king.
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Charles II, (Charles le Gros, or Charles the Fat) also known as , is also known as Charles III, emperor of Germany, was a King of France. He was born about 832 and died in 888. He was the son of Louis the German, and ascended the French throne in 885 to the prejudice of his cousin, Charles the Simple, but was deposed in 887 and died the following year.
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Charles III (Charles the Simple) was a King of France. He was born in 879 and died in 929. He was the son of Louis the Stammerer. His reign is noted for his long struggle with the piratical Northmen or Normans, to whose chief, Hollo, he eventually ceded the territory of Normandy.
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Charles Thomas was an American politician. He was a Democratic-Republican governor of Delaware from 1823 until 1824.
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Charles Edward Poulett Thomson (Baron Sydenham) was an English statesman. He was born in 1799 at Wimbledon and died in 1841 following a riding accident. He entered parliament in 1862 as member for Dover, and became vice-president of the board of trade in 1830. In the Reform Parliament of 1832 he was member for Manchester, and in 1834 became president of the board of trade. In 1839 he was appointed governor general of Canada, and was largely instrumental in effecting the union of the provinces as a sequel to the Durham report, and introduced a central government and constitution. In 1840 he was made a baron.
Charles Thomson was an Irish-born American insurgent. He was born in 1729 and died in 1824. He went to America from Ireland in 1746. His influence during the American Revolution was such that he was called 'the Sam Adams of Philadelphia, the life of the cause of liberty'. He was Secretary of the Continental Congress during its entire history, from 1774 to 1789. He made careful records of the proceedings and took valuable notes.
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Charles Thone was an American politician. He was a Republican governor of Nebraska from 1979 until 1983.
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Charles Towneley was an English collector of classical antiquities. He was born in 1737 near Burnley and died in 1805. In 1765, he visited Rome and became an enthusiastic collector of marbles. By way of excavations in Rome he built up an unrivalled collection of marbles which was housed in London after 1772 and purchased by the British Museum on his death, for 28,000 pounds.
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Charles Townshend (2nd Viscount Townshend nicknamed Turnip Townshend on account of his love of agriculture) was a British politician. He was born in 1674 and died in 1738. The eldest son of Horatio, Viscount Townshend, he became viscount in 1687. Educated at Eton and King's College Cambridge, he soon became prominent in the House of Lords as a Whig. After some diplomatic experience in the Netherlands, he was chosen in 1714 as a secretary of state, and became one of the leading ministers of George I. In 1716 he left office, but returned in 1720 as president of the council. He was a secretary of state from 1721 until 1730, his brother-in-law, Walpole, being his chief colleague.
Charles Townshend was an English statesan. He was born in 1725 and died in 1767. He was made Commissioner of Trade and Plantations in 1749, and made a careful study of the American colonies. In 1763 he was made First Lord of Trade and Plantations. He ardently supported Grenville's Stamp Act in 1765 and was in favour of imposing upon the colonies heavy burdens. He advocated the annulling of the colonial charters and the establishment of a uniform system of Government. In 1766 he became Chancellor of the Exchequer. He secured the passage of an act in 1767 which levied burdensome duties on such articles as tea, paper and glass.
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Sir Charles Tupper was a Canadian statesman. He was born in 1821 at Amherst, Nova Scotia and died in 1915. Educated at Amherst and in Edinburgh he became a doctor, but soon turned to politics and in 1855 entered the legislature of Nova Scotia, becoming Secretary of the province from 1857 until 1859 and prime minister from 1864 until 1867.
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Charles Turner was am English engraver. He was born in 1773 at Woodstock and died in 1857. After studying at the RA schools in London he practised aquatint, stipple and mezzotint engraving, achieving most success with his mezzotint engravings and was elected ARA in 1828.
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Charles V (also known as Charles I of Spain) was emperor of Germany. He was born in 1500 at Ghent and died in 1558. He was the eldest son of Philip, archduke of Austria, and of Joanna, the daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain. Charles was thus the grandson of the Emperor Maximilian and Mary, daughter of Charles the Bold, last duke of Burgundy, and inherited from his grandparents on both sides the fairest countries in Europe, Aragon, Naples, Sicily, Sardinia, Castile, and the colonies in the New World, Austria, Burgundy, and the Netherlands.
On the death of Ferdinand, his grandfather, Charles V assumed the title of King of Spain. In 1519 he was elected emperor, and was crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle with extraordinary splendour. The progress of the Reformation in Germany demanded the care of the new emperor, who held a diet at Worms. Luther, who appeared at this diet with a safe-conduct from Charles, defended his case with energy and boldness. The emperor kept silent; but after Luther's departure a severe edict appeared against him in the name of Charles, who thought it his interest to declare himself the defender of the Roman Church.
A war with France, which the rival claims of Francis I in Italy, the Netherlands, and Navarre made inevitable, broke out in 1521. Neither side had a decided success until the battle of Pavia in 1525, where Francis was totally defeated and taken prisoner. Charles treated his captive with respect, but with great rigour as regarded the conditions of his release. A league of Italian states, headed by Pope Clement VII, was now formed against the overgrown power of Charles; but their ill-directed efforts had no success. Rome itself was stormed and pillaged by the troops of the Constable of Bourbon, and the pope made prisoner.
Nor was the alliance of Henry VIII of England with Francis against the emperor any more successful, the war ending in the treaty of Cambray in 1529 of which the conditions were favourable to Charles. A war against the Turks by which Solyman was compelled to retreat, and an expedition against the Dey of Tunis by which 20,000 Christian slaves were released, added to the influence of Charles, and acquired for him the reputation of a chivalrous defender of the faith. In 1537 he made truce with Francis, and soon after, while on his way to the Netherlands, spent six days at the court of the latter in Paris. In 1541 another expedition against the African Moors, by which Charles hoped to crown his reputation, was unsuccessful, and he lost a part of his fleet and army before Algiers without gaining any advantage.
A new war with France arose regarding the territory of Milan. The quarrel was patched up by the peace of Crespy in 1545. The religious strife was again disturbing the emperor. Charles, who was no bigot, sought to reconcile the two parties, and with this view alternately courted and threatened the Protestants. At length in 1546 the Protestant princes declared war, but were driven from the field and compelled to submit. But the defection of his ally, Maurice of Saxony, whom Charles had invested with the electoral dignity, again turned the tide in favour of the Protestants. Maurice surprised the imperial camp at Innsbruck in the middle of a stormy night, and Charles with great difficulty escaped alone in a litter. The Treaty of Passau was dictated by the Protestants. It gave them equal rights with the Catholics, and was confirmed three years later by the diet of Augsburg in 1555. Foiled in his schemes and dejected with repeated failures, Charles resolved to resign the imperial dignity, and transfer his hereditary estates to his son Philip.
In 1555 he conferred on Philip the sovereignty of the Netherlands, and on January the 15th, 1556, that of Spain, retiring himself to a residence beside the monastery of Yuste in Estremadura, where he amused himself by mechanical labours and the cultivation of a garden. He still took a strong interest in public affairs, though latterly he was very much of an invalid, his ill health being partly caused by his high living.
Charles V (Charles The Wise) was king of France. He was born in 1337 and died in 1380. He was the son of King John. His father being taken prisoner by the English at Poitiers, the management of the kingdom devolved on him at an early age. With great skill and energy, not free, however, from duplicity, he suppressed the revolt of the Parisians and a rising of the peasants, kept the King of Navarre at bay, and deprived the English of a great part of their dominion in France. He erected the Bastille for the purpose of overawing the Parisians.
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Charles John Vaughan was a British divine. He was born in 1816 at Leicester and died in 1897. He was educated at Rugby and Trinity College, Cambridge, where he was bracketed senior classic. In 1841, being a fellow of Trinity, he was ordained in the Church of England and passed three years as vicar of St Martin's, Leicester. From 1844 until 1859 Vaughan was headmaster of Harrow, and from 1860 until 1869 was vicar of Doncaster. In 1869 he was chosen master of the Temple, and in 1879 dean of Llandaff. Vaughan was a successful headmaster, and a man of great personal influence.
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Sir Charles Lionel Vaughan-Lee was a British sailor. He was Born in 1867 and died after 1919. He entered the navy in 1880 and was a midshipman on the Minotaur during the Egyptian War of 1882. In 1899 to 1900 he was assistant to the director of naval ordnance, and assistant-director of naval intelligence, 1905. He commanded the Shotley barracks, Portsmouth, from 1913 to 1914, and in December 1914 was appointed to command the Thunderer. In the Great War he was appointed director of air services, in September 1915, and later became superintendent of Portsmouth dockyard. He became a rear-admiral in 1915, and received the KBE in 1919.
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Charles Vergennes, Count de Vergennes, was a French statesman. He was born in 1717 and died in 1787. He became Minister of Foreign Affairs in France in 1774. He gave efficient support to the American colonies during the American War of Independence. He counselled Louis XVI to loan the American insurgents money, to recognize their independence, and to sign the treaty of 1778, by
which France aided the Americans with forces, money and supplies. He was a negotiator of the treaty of Versailles in 1783. The American negotiators suspected him of intending to sacrifice their interests, and, disregarding their instructions, made a separate peace apart from France.
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Charles VI (Charles the Silly) was a king of France. He was born in 1368 at Paris and died in 1422. He was a son of Charles The Wise and succeeded to the throne at the age of twelve. His reign was plagued by fits on insanity and the country plagued by civil war between the Armagnacs and the Burgundians, making the country easy prey for the English under Henry V who crossed over to Normandy, took Harfleur by storm, won the famous victory of Agincourt, and compelled the crazy king to acknowledge him as his successor.
Charles VI was Emperor of Germany. He was born in 1685 and died in 1740. The second son of the Emperor Leopold I, he was destined by the rules of inheritance to succeed his relative Charles II on the throne of Spain, but Charles II by his will made the French Prince, the Duke of Anjour, his heir. This led to the War of the Spanish Succession in which England and Holland took the part of the Austrian claimant. He held Madrid for a while before conceding Spain to the French claim and content himself with the Spanish subject-lands, Milan, Mantua, Sardinia, and the Netherlands (sanctioned by the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713 and the Treaty of Rastadt in 1714). He became Emperor of Germany in 1711.
In a war against the Turks his armies, led by Eugene of Savoy, gained the decisive victories of Peterwardein and Belgrade. After the death of his only son, Charles directed all his policy and energies to secure the guarantee of the various powers to the Pragmatic Sanction, settling the succession to the Austrian dominions on his daughter Maria Theresa. In 1733 a war with France and Spain regarding the succession in Poland terminated unfavourably for him, he having to surrender Sicily, Naples, and part of Milan to Spain, and Lorraine to France. In 1737 he renewed the war with the Turks, this time unsuccessfully.
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Charles VII (Charles The Victorious) was king of France. He was born in 1403 and died in 1461. He was crowned in 1422 after the death of his father, Charles VI, in spite of the treaty of Troyes which gave Henry V of England claim to the throne following his conquest of the country. He made little progress against the English until the advent of Joan of Arc in 1429.
Charles VII was Emperor of Germany. He was born in 1697 and died in 1745. He was the son of Maximilian Emanuel, elector of Bavaria. On the death of Charles VI of Germany he refused to acknowledge Maria Theresa as heiress and in support of his own claims he invaded Austria with an army, took Prague and was crowned King of Bohemia and in 1742 was elected Emperor. But fortune soon deserted him. The armies of Maria Theresa reconquered all Upper Austria, and overwhelmed Bavaria. Charles fled to Frankfurt, and returning to Munich in 1744, died there the following year.
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Charles VIII was king of France. He was born in 1470 and died in 1498. He succeeded his father, Louis XI in 1483. In 1491 he married Anne, the heiress of Brittany, and thereby annexed that important duchy to the French crown. The chief event in the reign of Charles VIII is his expedition into Italy, and rapid conquest of the kingdom of Naples, a conquest as rapidly lost when a few months later Gonsalvo de Cordova re-annexed it to Spain. Charles VIII was meditating a renewed descent into Italy when he died in 1498.
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Charles Voysey was the founder of the Theistic Church. He was born in 1828 at London and died in 1912. He was ordained a clergyman of the Church of England, and deprived in 1871 as a consequence of certain publications which were judged to be heterodox.
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Charles W Bryan was an American politician. He was a Democratic governor of Nebraska from 1931 until 1935.
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Charles W Gates was an American politician. He was a Republican governor of Vermont from 1915 until 1917.
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Charles W Lippitt was an American politician. He was a Republican governor of Rhode Island from 1895 until 1897.
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Charles W Tobey was an American politician. He was a Republican governor of New Hampshire from 1929 until 1931.
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Sir Charles Warren was a British general. He was born in 1840 and died in 1927. He was engaged in excavation work in Palestine from 1867 - 1870 and the commissioner for the settlement of the boundary between the Orange Free State and Griqualand West in 1876 and 1877.
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Charles Waterton was an English naturalist and explorer. He was born in 1782 near Wakefield and died in 1865. He spent a lot of time in South America, publishing his findings in 'Wanderings in South America' in 1825.
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Charles Wesley was an American theologian. He was born in 1708 and died in 1788. He was one of the founders of the society which was the beginning of Arminian Methodism. He wrote 7000 hymns, some of great merit. From 1735 to 1736 he was in Georgia, secretary to Governor Oglethorpe.
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Sir Charles Wheatstone was an English scientist. He was born in 1802 near Gloucester and died in 1875. He invented the Wheatstone bridge which measures electrical resistance.
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Charles Wilkes was an American naval officer. He was born in 1798 at New York and died in 1877. During a US expedition of 1838 to 1842 he discovered the continent of Antarctica and published a narrative of five volumes in 1845. In November 1861 he captured Mason and Slidell, Confederate commissioners from the British steam-packet Trent, and afterwards commanded a squadron in the West Indies and was made a rear-admiral in 1866.
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Charles X (Comte d'Artois) was king of France. He was born in 1757 at Versailles and died in 1836. The grandson of Louis XV, he was the youngest son of the dauphin, and brother of Louis XVI. He left France in 1789, after the first popular insurrection and destruction of the Bastille, and afterwards assuming the command of a body of emigrants, acted in concert with the Austrian and Prussian armies on the Rhine. Despairing of success he retired to Great Britain and resided for several years in the palace of Holyrood at Edinburgh. He entered France at the Restoration, and in 1824 succeeded his brother, Louis XVIII as king. In a short time his reactionary policy brought him into conflict with the popular party, and in 1830 a revolution drove him from the throne, and he resided in Britain until 1832 when he moved to Hungary.
Charles X was king of Sweden. He was born in 1622 and died in 1660.
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Charles XI was king of Sweden. He was born in 1655 and died in 1697. He was the only child of Charles X (2) whom he succeeded in 1660 under a council of regency until he attained his majority at the age of seventeen. Misled by the Chancellor De La Gardie and his other counsellors he embarked on a war with Brandenburg in 1675.
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Charles XII (also known as Alexander of the North) was king of Sweden. He was born in 1682 at Stockholm and died in 1718. He was the sole surviving son of Charles XI, whom he succeeded in 1697, when he was but fifteen years old, he was declared of age by the estates. To his jealous neighbours this seemed a favourable time to humble the pride of Sweden. Frederick IV of Denmark, Augustus I. of Poland, and the Czar Peter I of Russia concluded an alliance which resulted in war against Sweden. With the aid of an English and Dutch squadron the Danes were soon made to sign peace, but Augustus of Saxony and Poland, and the czar were still in the field. Rapidly transporting 20,000 men to Livonia, Charles XII stormed the czar's camp at Nerva, slaying 30,000 Russians and dispersing the rest on the 30th of November 1700. Crossing the Dwina he then attacked the Saxons and gained a decisive victory. Following up this advantage he won the battle of Clissau, drove Augustus from Poland, had the crown of that country conferred on Stanislaus Leczinsky, and dictated the conditions of peace at Altranstadt in Saxony in 1706.
In September, 1707, the Swedes left Saxony, Charles XII taking the shortest route to Moscow. At Smolensk he altered his plan, deviated to the Ukraine to gain the help of the Cossacks, and weakened his army very seriously by difficult marches through a district extremely cold and ill supplied with provisions. In this condition Peter marched upon him with 70,000 men, and defeated him completely at Pultawa. Charles XII fled with a small guard and found refuge and an honourable reception at Bender, in the Turkish territory. Here he managed to persuade the Porte to declare war against Russia. The armies met on the banks of the Pruth on July the 1st 1711 and Peter seemed nearly ruined, when his wife, Catharine, succeeded in bribing the grand vizier, and procured a peace in which the interests of Charles XII were neglected.
The attempts of Charles XII to rekindle a war were vain, and after having spent some years at Bender he was forced by the Turkish government to leave. Arriving in his own country in 1714, he set about the measures necessary to defend the kingdom, and the fortunes of Sweden were beginning to assume a favourable aspect when he was slain by a cannon-ball as he was besieging Frederikshall on November the 30th, 1718. Firmness, valour, and love of justice were the great features in the character of Charles XII, but were disfigured by an obstinate rashness. After his death Sweden sank from the rank of a leading power.
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Charles XIII was a King of Sweden. He was born in 1748 and died in 1818. He was the second son of King Adolphus Frederick. In the war with Russia, in 1788, he received the command of the fleet, and defeated the Russians in the Gulf of Finland. After the murder of his brother, Gustavus III, in 1792, he was placed at the head of the regency, and gained universal esteem in that position. The revolution of 1809 placed him on the throne at a very critical period, but his prudent conduct procured the union of Sweden with Norway, on November the 4th, 1814. He adopted as his successor Marshal Bernadotte, who became king on the death of Charles XIII, on February the 5th, 1818.
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Charley E Johns was an American politician. He was a Democratic governor of Florida from 1953 until 1955.
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Charlie Parker (known as the 'bird' on account of the birdsong-like quality of his saxophone playing) was an American jazz musician. He was born in 1920 at Kansas City, Missouri and died in 1955 of a heart attack presumed a result of his heroin addiction and excessive drinking.
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Charlotte Bronte was an English writer. She was born in 1816 at Thornton and died in 1855. She was the third daughter of the Reverend Patrick Bronte, rector of Thornton, from which he removed in 1820, on becoming incumbent of Haworth, a moorland village in the West Riding of Yorkshire, about four miles from Keighley. Her mother died soon after this removal, and her father, an able though eccentric man, brought up Charlotte and her sisters in quite a Spartan fashion, inuring them to every kind of industry and fatigue.
After an education received partly at home and partly at neighbouring schools, Charlotte Bronte became a teacher, and then a governess in a family. In 1842 she went with her sister Emily Bronte to Brussels, with the view of acquiring a knowledge of the French and German languages, and she subsequently taught for a year in the school she had attended here.
In 1844 arrangements were entered into by her and her sisters Emily Bronte and Anne Bronte to open a school at Haworth, but from the want of success in obtaining pupils no progress was ever made with their scheme. They resolved now to turn their attention to literary composition; and in 1846 a volume of poems by the three sisters was published, under the names of Currer, Ellis, and Acton Bell. It was issued at their own risk, and attracted little attention, so they quit poetry for prose fiction, and produced each a novel. Charlotte Bronte (writing as Currer Bell) entitled her production The Professor, but it was everywhere refused by the publishing trade, and was not given to the world until after her death. Emily Bronte (writing as Ellis Bell) with her tale of Wuthering Heights, and Anne Bronte (writing as Acton Bell) with Agnes Grey, were more successful.
Charlotte Bronte's failure, however, did not discourage her, and she composed the novel of Jane Eyre, which was published in October, 1847. Its success was immediate and decided. Her second novel of Shirley appeared in 1849. Previous to this she had lost her two sisters, Emily dying on the 19th of December 1848, and Anne on the 28th of May, 1849 (after publishing a second novel, The Tenant of Wild Fell Hall). In the autumn of 1852 appeared Charlotte's third novel, Villette. Shortly after, she married her father's curate, the Reverend Arthur Bell Nicholls, but in nine months died of consumption. Her originally rejected tale of The Professor was published after her death, in 1857, and the same year a biography of her appeared written by Elizabeth Gaskell.
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Charlotte Church (real name Charlotte Maria Reed) is a Welsh singer. She was born in 1986 at Llandaff, Cardiff.
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Charlotte Corday (real name Marie Anne Charlotte Corday d'Armont) was a French revolutionary and the assassin of Jean Marat. She was born in 1768 at Saint Saturnin and died in 1793 when she was guillotined for the murder of Marat, whom she stabbed in his bath in July 1793, believing him to be a tyrant.
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Charlotte Maria Tucker was an English author and missionary. She was born in 1821 and died in 1893. She wrote a large number of books for children under the pseudonym A.L.O.E. (A Lady Of England).
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Charlotte von Stein was a friend of Johann Goethe. She was born in 1742 and died in 1827. The wife of the master of the horse of the duke of Saxe-Weimar, she became the intimate friend of Johann Goethe and is known as the recipient of a long series of his letters, published between 1848 and 1851. The intimacy of their relationship was broken for a while by Johann Goethe's marriage, but restarted.
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The Charruas were a war-like South American tribe of Indians dominant in Uruguay and southern Brazil until they were exterminated to make way for non- Indian settlers during the 19th century. They were of a dark complexion and used the bow and sling as weapons.
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The Chartists were followers of the chartism political movement that formerly caused great excitement in Britain. The reform bill passed in 1832 gave political enfranchisement to the middle-classes, but to the large body of the working-classes it brought, primarily at least, no additional advantages, and this circumstance was turned to account by many demagogues, who urged on the people the idea that they had been betrayed by the middle-classes and their interests sacrificed. A period of commercial depression and a succession of bad harvests brought discontent to a head in the Chartist movement. It was founded on the general idea that the evils under which the people were labouring were due to the misconduct of government and a defective political representation. In 1838 the famous 'Charter,' or 'People's Charter,' was prepared by a committee of six members of parliament and six working-men. It comprised six heads, namely:
- 1. Universal suffrage, or the right of voting for every male of twenty-one years of age.
- 2. Equal electoral districts.
- 3. Vote by ballot.
- 4. Annual parliaments.
- 5. No other qualification to be necessary for members of parliament than the choice of the electors.
- 6. Members of parliament to be paid for their services
Immense meetings were now held throughout the country, and popular excitement mounted to the highest pitch. Physical force was advocated as the only means for obtaining satisfaction. In June, 1839, after the refusal of the House of Commons to consider a monster petition in favour of the Charter, serious riots took place. In 1848 the French revolution of February stirred all the revolutionary elements in Europe, and a great demonstration on the part of the Chartists was organized. But the preparations taken by the government for defence prevented outbreaks of any consequence, and Chartism then gradually declined. Some of the demands of the Charter were adopted by the Liberal party and made into law; while the more advanced section of Chartism has been absorbed by Socialist and Republican movements.
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Chase A Clark was an American politician. He was a Democratic governor of Idaho from 1941 until 1943.
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Chase S Osborn was an American politician. He was a Republican governor of Michigan from 1911 until 1912.
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Chasidim or Pietists was the name of a Jewish sect which appeared in the middle of the 18th century. Its adherents were strongly inclined to mysticism, depreciated the Old Testament and its ordinances, believed in extraordinary cures, etc. They were most numerous in Russian Poland, Romania, and some parts of Galicia and Hungary, and were regarded with great antipathy by the orthodox Jews. Chasidim is also the name given to a sect which sprang up about the 2nd century BC. This party is credited with the origin of the revolt of the Maccabees, with combating the erroneous notions bred among the Jews by the study of Grecian philosophy, and with being the parent stock of the Pharisees.
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The Chasta Costa were an indigenous Indian tribe formerly found in Oregon, USA, now extinct.
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The Chauci were an ancient Teutonic tribe dwelling east of the Frisians, between the Eras and Elbe on the shore of the German Ocean.
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The chauffeur were French bandits who, about 1793, pillaged, burned, and killed in parts of France. They were so called because they used to burn the feet of their victims to extort money.
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Chauncey Sparks was an American politician. He was a Democratic governor of Alabama from 1943 until 1947.
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Che Guevara (real name Ernesto Guevara) was an Argentinean revolutionary. He was born in 1928 and died in 1967. A qualified doctor, he left Argentina in 1953 because of his opposition to the dictator Peron. He became a communist after seeing the poverty in many South American countries and fought under Fidel Castro in the Cuban Revolution of 1956 to 1959. Although he became a government minister in Cuba, he later disappeared to resume his guerrilla activities. He was eventually captured and shot by the army in Bolivia while training a guerrilla group there. His dedication and death made him a hero among young Western revolutionaries in the late 1960s and 1970s.
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A cheater was a tax collector who collected dues owed to the king's exchequer. The term evolved into its present meaning from the manner in which the tax collectors fleeced and cheated the people.
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A chemist is a person engaged in the pursuit of any branch of pure or applied chemistry, e.g. an organic chemist, physical chemist, analytical chemist, tanning chemist, dyeworks chemist, etc. The name is often given also to pharmacists or pharmaceutical chemists, who keep retail shops for the sale of drugs.
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The Cherokee (more properly Tsallaki) are a north American Indian nation of the Iroquois family with two main divisions: the Ottare and the Ayrate.
Cherokee Indians down to 1830 occupied the upper valley of the Tennessee River. They supported the English against the French. In 1755 they ceded lands to Governor Glen and permitted the construction of English forts within their territory. In 1757 difficulties arose which led to hostilities. with the English, finally terminated by the Cherokees' defeat in 1761. In 1773 they ceded to Georgia a large tract of land. At the commencement of the American War of Independence they joined the English, and in 1780 served at Augustao They were finally reduced by General Pickens and acknowledged the sovereignty of the United States on November the 28th, 1785. They ceded other portions of their territory, and in 1790 a part of the tribe migrated to Louisiana. The Cherokees rendered important services in Jackson's army in 1812, but the Georgians desired to get rid of them. In 1817 they ceded lands to the United States, who in turn provided lands on the Arkansas and White. Here 3000 emigrated in 1818, and finally in 1835 the remainder found homes in Indian Territory, west of the lands given the first immigrants. During the American Civil War they first joined the Confederates, taking part in the battle at Pea Ridge, but afterward were separated into two parties.
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The Cherusci were an ancient German tribe, whose territory probably was situated in that part of Germany lying between the Weser and the Elbe, and having the Harz Mountains on the north and the Sudetic range on the south. This tribe was known to the Romans before 50 BC, and occasionally served in the Roman armies. But when Varus attempted to subject them to the Roman laws they formed a confederation with many smaller tribes, and having decoyed him into the forests, destroyed his whole army in a battle which lasted three days, and in which he himself was slain in 9 AD. Upon this the Cherusci became the chief object of the attacks of the Romans. Germanicus marched against them, but though successful in several campaigns did not obtain any permanent advantages. Subsequently the Cherusci were overcome by the Chatti, and latterly they were incorporated among the Franks.
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Cheryl Cole (also known as Cheryl Tweedy) is an English singer and actress. She was born in 1983 at Newcastle-Upon-Tyne. She is best known as part of the 2002 pop group 'Girls Aloud'.
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Chester Alan Arthur was the 21st President of the USA from 1881 to 1885. He was born in 1830 at Fairfield, Vermont and died in 1886. The son of Scottish parents, his father being pastor of Baptist churches in Vermont and New York, he graduated from Union College in 1848 and taught for a while before studying and practising law at New York, championing the rights of the Black community. During the American Civil War he was energetic as quartermaster general of New York in getting troops raised and equipped. He was afterwards collector of customs for the port of New York. In 1880 he was elected vice-president, succeeding as president on the death James Abram Garfield in 1881.
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Chester B Jordan was an American politician. He was a Republican governor of New Hampshire from 1901 until 1903.
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Chester H Aldrich was an American politician. He was a Republican governor of Nebraska from 1911 until 1913.
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Chevalier Henri de Tonty was a French explorer. He was born in 1650 and died in 1704. He accompanied La Salle to Canada in 1678 and explored with him the Mississippi. Later he twice descended to the mouth of the Mississippi in search of La Salle.
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The Cheyenne are an American Indian tribe of the Algonquin family. They first settled near the Black Hills before the beginning of the 19th century. In 1825 the first treaty of friendship was made with them by General Atkinson. The tribe separated later, and one part moved South. A number of treaties between both divisions of the tribe and the United States were executed. The failure to fulfil the one of 1861 led to war. Negotiations for peace were being made, when, on November the 29th, 1864, Colonel Chevington attacked the Sandy Creek village, and massacred 100 Cheyennes. A disastrous war followed. In 1865 the southern division agreed to go on a reservation, except the Dog Soldiers whose village was burned by General Hancock in 1867. This led to another disastrous war, in which General George Custer defeated them at Washita. The northern band continued peaceable.
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Chiang Kai-Shek was a Chinese political and military leader. He served with Sun Yat-Sen during the 1911 revolution and later became leader of the nationalist government. He opposed the communists and fled to Taiwan in 1950.
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The Chickasaw Indians are a native American people, first known to the European colonists as residing east of the Mississippi. They early joined the English against the French and in 1739 entered into friendly relations with General Oglethorpe. In 1765 their head men with those of the Choctaws met Governor George Johnson in a congress at Mobile and established friendly trade relations. By the treaty of 1786 their territory was fixed with a boundary at the Ohio on the north and extended down into what became Mississippi. They continued friendly with the colonists during Indian hostilities and aided them against the Creeks in 1793. By treaties in 1805, 1816 and 1818 they ceded all their lands east of the Mississippi, some of the tribe having previously, about the year 1800, migrated to the Arkansas. In 1832 and 1834 the Chickasaws ceded the remainder of their lands and migrated to the territory of the Choctaws, with whom they lived under one government until 1855, when they were granted a political separation. Early in the American Civil War they took sides with the South.
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Originally child was the name for a young female person, while a young male was called a boy. Now the term child refers to a young person of either sex. Hence Shakespeare ponders the question 'A boy or a child, I Wonder?' translating to 'A boy or a girl, I wonder?' in modern parlance.
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Childebert was a king of the Merovingian dynasty, France. He was born about 495 and died in 558. He was the third son of Clovis, and on his father's death in 511 he succeeded to the kingdom of Paris as his share of the paternal dominions.
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Cjildebert II was king of France. He was born about 570 and died in 596. He was the son of Sigebert and Brunehaut and died from the effects of poison.
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Childebert III (Childebert the Just) was king of France. He was born about 683 and died in 711. He was the son of Thierry I, king of the Franks, and was proclaimed king in 695, on the death of his brother, Clovis III. His kingship, however, was merely nominal, the true sovereign being Pepin le Gros or d'Heristal, who, under the title of Mayor of the Palace, exercised the real authority. He was thus one of those Merovingian kings who, from their incapacity, received the appellation of rois faineants, or sluggard kings.
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Childeric was king of France in 458.
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Chimneymen was the name given to the officials who visited houses investigating the level of hearth-money they should pay, during the 17th century.
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The Chinooks are a tribe of North American Indians formerly numerous in Oregon and British Columbia. By 1900 they had all been wiped out, with a handful living on reservations in Washington and Oregon.
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Chinua Achebe is a Nigerian novelist and poet. He was born in 1930. His first novel, Things Fall Apart (written in 1958), set the theme for his subsequent work: the impact of Western influences on traditional African society. Achebe's other works include The Arrow of God (written in 1964), and A Man of the People (written in 1966). Unsentimental, often ironic, they vividly convey tribal culture and the very speech of the Ibo people. Achebe' s later works include a short-story collection, Girls at War (written in 1972), and Christmas in Biafra and Other Poems (published in 1973). Since 1971 he has been co-editor of Okike, one of Africa's most influential literary magazines.
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Chiquitos was a collective name for a large group of South American aborigines in Bolivia. They were roughly forty tribes, grouped into seven divisions: Tapacuraca, Napeca, Paunaca, Paiconeca, Quitemoca, Zuracariguia and Monococa. They were described in 1905 as a merry, light-hearted people given to singing and dancing and cultivating white and yellow cotton and indigo which they used to prepare striped clothing. They lived in a Communist society, produce from industries being sold for the benefit of the community and a fund formed for the relief of the sick and aged.
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The Choctaws (more properly Chahtas) are a North American Indian nation of the Muskhogean family. They were formerly allied to the Chickasaws, the two nations occupying the eastern side of the Mississippi between its Ohio and Yazoo affluents. The Choctaws lay more to the south holding both banks of the Yazoo. They acknowledged the sovereignty of the United States in 1786. At the beginning of the 19th century a migratory movement to the West was begun. They served in the war with England and in the Creek War. In 1820 they ceded a part of their territory to the Government for lands west of Arkansas. Georgia assumed control over their lands in the East, giving the Indians the rights of citizenship. In 1830 they ceded the remainder of their lands and moved West with the Chickasaws. By joining the Confederate cause they lost their civil rights. New treaties were made in 1866. By 1905 the Choctaws had embraced the American way of life and were farmers with a constitution, bill of rights and newspapers.
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Cholos is the name in Peru for those who are partly of white (European) and partly of Indian parentage, the most numerous class of the community.
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The Chontals are an ancient people of Central America formerly widespread through Honduras, Nicaragua and Costa Rica they are now found only in north-eastern Nicaragua.
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Choragus was a name given by the Greeks to the leader or director of the choruses furnished for the public festivals, and who also defrayed the expenses of the chorus. The choragus who was adjudged to have performed his duty best received a tripod of brass, for which he had to build a monument, on which it was placed. A street in Athens which contained a great number of these choragic monuments was called the Street of the Tripods.
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Chosroes I (Chosroes the Just) was the greatest of the Sassanid kings of Persia. He reigned from 531 until 579. At his accession Persia was involved in a war with the Emperor Justinian, which Chosroes I terminated successfully, obliging Justinian to purchase peace by the payment of a large sum of money. In 540, however, jealous of the victories of Belisarius, the great general of the empire, Constantine violated the peace, invaded Syria, laid Antioch in ashes, and returned home laden with spoils. The war continued until 562, when the emperor again purchased peace by an annual tribute of 30000 pieces of gold. The peace continued for ten years, when the war was renewed with Justin, the successor of Justinian, when Chosroes I was again successful. The following emperor, Tiberius, at length completely defeated the Persians in 578.
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Chouans was a name given to the royalist peasantry of Brittany and Lower Maine, who carried on a petty warfare against the republican government from an early period of the French revolution. The name was finally extended to all the Vendeans. The name was derived from the first chief of the Chouans, Jean Cottereau, who with his three brothers organized these bands in 1792. Cottereau had joined a band of dealers in contraband salt, and acquired the surname Chouan from the cry of the screech-owl which he used as a signal with his companions. He was killed in an engagement with the republican troops in 1794. The remaining Chouans were not suppressed until 1799, and even after that occasional spurts of insurrection occurred down until 1830, when they were finally put down.
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Chretien de Troyes was a French trouvere. He was born about 1150 at Troyes and died about the end of the 12th or beginning of the 13th century. His fame rests upon six romances still extant: Iric et Guide, Perceval le Gallois, Le Chevalier au Lion, Cliget, Chevalier de la Table ronde, Lancelot du lac, and Guillaume d'Angleterre. Another two of his works, Tristan, ou le Roi Marc et la Reine Yseult, and Le Chevalier a l'Epee, have been apparently lost.
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Chris Stein was lead guitarist with the 70's punk rock band Blondie.
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The Christadelphians were a religious sect formed during the 19th century, who believed that God would raise all who love him to an endless life in this world, but that those who do not would absolutely perish in death; that Christ is the Son of God, inheriting moral perfection from the Deity, our human nature from his mother; and that there is no personal devil.
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Christiaan Huygens was a Dutch mathematician and physicist. He was born in 1629 and died in 1695. He studied at Leyden, and at Breda, where he went through a course of civil law from 1646-48. He made several journeys to Denmark, France, and England; in 1666 settled at the invitation of Colbert in Paris, where he remained until 1681, when he returned to Holland on account of his health.
Among his most important contributions to science are his investigations on the oscillations of the pendulum - he invented the pendulum clock, and his System of Saturn, in which he first proved that the ring completely surrounds the planet, and determined the inclination of its plane to that of the ecliptic. In 1690 he published important treatises on light and on weight. His Traite de la Lumiere was founded on the undulation theory, but in consequence of the prevalence of the Newtonian theory it was long neglected until later researches established its credit.
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Christian A Herter was an American politician. He was a Republican governor of Massachusetts from 1953 until 1957.
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Christian August Brandis was a German scholar. He was born in 1790 and died in 1867. After studying at Kiel and Gottingen he was induced by Niebuhr to accompany him to Rome as secretary to the Prussian embassy. In 1822 he was made professor of philosophy at the University of Bonn. From this date his name became well known as that of a contributor to the learned journals of Germany, until in 1835 the appearance of the first part of his great work on the History of Greek and Roman Philosophy acquired for him a European reputation.
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Christian Brunings was a Dutch hydraulic architect. He was born in 1736 and died in 1805. He was appointed general inspector of rivers by the States of Holland in 1769.
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Christian Karl Josias Chevalier Bunsen was a German diplomatist and scholar. He was born in 1791 at Korbach, in the principality of Waldeck, 1791 and died in 1860. In 1815 he made the acquaintance of Niebuhr, who shortly after procured for him the post of secretary to the Prussian embassy at Rome. In 1824 he was appointed charge d'affaires, and afterwards minister. After a stay of twelve years in Rome he was sent, as Prussian minister, first to Switzerland, and then to England, where he remained until the breaking out of the Eastern difficulty in 1854. In his official capacity he won the esteem of all, and with Britain especially he was connected by many ties. His later years were spent at Heidelberg and at Bonn exclusively in literary pursuits. Among his best-known works are Die Verfassung der Kirche der Zukunft (The Constitution of the Church of the Future), Hamburg, 1845;
Aegyptens Stelle in der Weltgeschichte (Egypt's Place in the World's History), Hamburg, 1845; Hippolytus und seine Zeit (Hippolytus and his Time), London, 1851; and lastly, his greatest work, Bibelwerk fur die Gemeinde (Bible Commentary for the Community), the publication of which was unfinished at his death. His Memoirs, by his widow, were published in 1868.
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Christian Rudolph De Wet was a Boer soldier and politician. He was born in 1854 in the Orange Free State and died in 1922. His father removing into the Transvaal, he fought as a field-cornet at Majuba. Aa member of the Volksraad from 1889 to 1897 he helped to draw the two Dutch Republics together, and in the South African War commanded first in Natal, and then in the west under Cronje, whose rescue at Paardeberg he attempted, but unsuccessfully. After March, 1900, he distinguished himself by his attacks on the British lines of communication, and by his skill in evading capture. He became Commander-in-Chief of the Free State forces, and was the only undefeated Boer general at the end of the war, after which he, with Louis Botha and Delarey, came to Europe to collect funds for his countrymen. He published an account of the struggle in The Three Years' War. In 1907 he became Minister of Agriculture in the Orange River Colony. In 1914 he joined the Afrikaner insurrection, was captured and sentenced to imprisonment for six years, but was released in 1915.
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Christian Wilheml Ernst Dietrich was a German painter and engraver. He was born in 1712 and died in 1774. He was called by Winckelmann 'the Raphael of Landscape'. He studied under his father, and afterwards under Alexander Thiele at Dresden, where he became court-painter, professor in the academy, etc. He adopted several different manners, successfully imitating Raphael and Mieris, Correggio and Ostade.
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Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg was a German scientist. He was born in l795 and died in 1876. After studying theology, medicine, and natural history, in 1820 he joined an expedition to Palestine, Egypt, and Abyssinia, returning to Berlin in 1825. In 1829 he accompanied Humboldt to the Ural and Altai ranges and to Central Siberia. His great work on Infusoria appeared in 1838, and was at once recognized as the highest authority on the subject. It was followed in 1854 by his Microgeology.
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Christian Furchtegott Gellert was a German poet. He was born in 1715 and died in 1769. He was appointed extraordinary professor of philosophy at Leipzig in 1751, where his lectures were received with great applause. His hymns, tales, fables, and essays enjoyed much popularity in their day.
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Christian David Ginsburg was a rabbinical scholar. He was born in 1831. He was the author of learned Commentaries on the Song of Song's, Ecclesiates, and Leviticus; The Karaites, their History and Literature; The Essenes; The Kabbalah, its Doctrines, Development, and Literature, and other works of similar character. His greatest work is, however, was the Massora. He was one of the scholars engaged on the revised version of the Old Testament.
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Christian Gottlob Heyne was a German scholar. He was born in 1729 and died in 1812. He was educated at Chemnitz and at Leipzig University, and after a long struggle with poverty in 1763 he received an invitation to become professor of eloquence and poetry at Gottingen. He was soon after in 1764 appointed first librarian, and remained there until his death. He particularly applied himself to classical criticism and the illustration of the writings of the ancients, and published valuable editions of Homer, Pindar, Diodorus Siculus, Epictetus, Virgil, Tibullus, etc, all with full commentaries.
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Christian I was king of Denmark in 1448, and elected king of Sweden in 1457.
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Christian II (Christian the Angry) was King of Denmark and Norway. He was born in 1481 at Nyborg and died in 1559. He was a son of John and when he became king in 1513 Sweden refused to acknowledge him, and he caused all the Swedish nobility to be massacred in 1520, aiming for the improvement of life for the common people. In 1523 Sweden revolted and Christian II was forced to flee to the Netherlands. In 1531, aided by the Netherlands he attempted to regain his crown but his fleet was scattered by a storm and he was forced to surrender. He died in a dungeon in 1559.
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Christian III was king of Denmark and Norway in 1533.
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Christian IV was king of Denmark and Norway. He was born in 1577 at Frederiksborg and died in 1648. he succeeded to the throne in 1588.
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Christian IX was king of Denmark. He was born in 1818 and died in 1906. He succeeded to the throne in 1863 after a conference of the European powers in London in 1852 decided he should succeed the childless Frederick VII as king of Denmark. Parliament legalised the decision and he was crowned.
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Christian Friedrich Schonbein was a German chemist. He was born in 1799 at Netzingen and died in 1868. From 1828 until his death he occupied the chair of chemistry at Basel. He conducted investigations into ozone, hydrogen peroxide and discovered gun-cotton.
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Christian Friedrich Stockmar, Baron von Stockmar, was a German statesman. He was born in 1787 at Coburg and died in 1863. Christian Stockmar came from a noble family of Swedish origin, and as a young man studied medicine and became physician and adviser to Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg. Christian Stockmar promoted the cause of Prince Leopold as king of the Belgians, and was recommended by Leopold to his niece, the Princess Victoria on her coming of age, as her political tutor.
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Christian Stolberg (Count bon Stolberg) was a German poet and critic. He was born in 1748 at Hamburg and died in 1821. Educated at Gottingen, he became one of the patriotic literary group known as the Hainbund (Sylvan League).
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Christian V was king of Denmark and Norway in 1670.
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Christian VI was king of Denmark and Norway in 1730.
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Christian VII was king of Denmark and Norway in 1766.
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Christian VIII was king of Denmark in 1839.
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The Christians of St John were a sect of religionists found in Asiatic Turkey, chiefly in the neighbourhood of Bassorah. They professed to follow the teaching of John the Baptist, and were wrongly called Christians since they rejected Christ, and were practically heathens, whose deities are darkness and light. They were called also Mendeans, Mendaites or Mandaites, and are also known as Sabians.
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Christians of St. Thomas is (was?) the name of a sect of Christians on the coast of Malabar, in India, to which region the apostle St Thomas is said to have carried the gospel. They belong to those Christians who, in the year 499, united to form a Syrian and Chaldaic church in Central and Eastern Asia, and are, like them, Nestorians.
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Christina was Queen of Sweden. She was born in 1626 and died in 1689. The daughter of Gustavus Adolphus, after the death of Gustavus, at Lutzen, in 1632, the states-general appointed guardians to the Queen Christina, then but six years old. Her education was continued according to the plan of Gustavus Adolphus. She learned the ancient languages, history, geography, politics, and renounced the pleasures of her age in order to devote herself entirely to study.
In 1644 she took upon herself the government. A great talent for business, and great firmness of purpose, distinguished her first steps. She terminated the war with Denmark begun in 1644, and obtained several provinces by the treaty concluded at Bromsebro in 1645. Her subjects wished that she should choose a husband, but she manifested a constant aversion to marriage. During this time her patronage of learned men, artists, and the like, was lavish.
In 1650 she caused herself to be crowned with great pomp, and with the title of king. From that time a striking change in her conduct was perceptible. She neglected her ancient ministers, and listened to the advice of ambitious favourites. Intrigues and base passions succeeded to her former noble and useful views. The public treasure was squandered with extravagant profusion. In 1654 she abdicated in favour of her cousin Charles Gustavus, reserving to herself a certain income, entire independence, and full power over her suite and household. A few days after she left Sweden and went to Brussels, where she made a public entry and remained for some time. There she made a secret profession of the Catholic religion, which she afterwards publicly confirmed in Innsbruck. From Innsbruck she went to Rome, which she entered on horseback in the costume of an Amazon, with great pomp. When the Pope Alexander VII confirmed her she adopted the surname of Alessandra. For some time she resided at Paris, and incurred great odium by the execution of her Italian groom Monaldeschi for betrayal of confidence. Subsequent attempts which she made to resume the crown of Sweden failed, and she spent the rest of her life in artistic and other studies at Rome. She left an immense art collection and a large number of valuable manuscripts. Her writings were collected and published in 1752.
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Christina Georgina Rossetti was an English poet. She was born in 1830 at London and died in 1894. She was the daughter of Gabriele Rossetti, the Italian poet and patriot.
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Christoph Willibald Ritter Von Gluck was a German composer of operas. He was born in 1714 at Bavaria and died in 1787. When a boy he became a chorister, and acquired some skill on the harpsichord and organ. At eighteen years of age he went to Prague to enter the university, where he maintained himself by the exercise of his musical gifts.
By degrees he attracted the attention of several Bohemian nobles, and Prince Lobkowitz assisted him when he went to Vienna to pursue his musical studies, The Lombardian prince di Melzi then took him to Milan, where he studied under Giovanni Battista Sammartini, a famous organist and composer.
In 1740 he was employed to compose an opera for the court theatre of Milan. The text chosen for him was the Artaxerxes of Metastasio, and the opera was a triumph, in spite of the innovations of style which the author introduced.
In 1742 he wrote Demofoonte for Milan; Demetrio and Ipermnestra for Venice; in 1743 Artamene for Cremona, and Siface for Milan; in 1744 Fedra for the same theatre;
and in 1745 Allessandro nell' Indie for Turin, all founded on classical subjects. Invited to London, he produced La Caduta de Giganti (Fall of the Giants), which was not a success. In London Gluck became deeply impressed with the majestic character of Handel's airs and choruses, and with the simple but natural dramatic style of Dr. Arne. This visit to London, and a short trip to Paris, helped to develop that lyric genius which was destined to create a new order of musical composition.
After producing many pieces of the usual class of opera at Paris, Vienna, Rome, and Naples, he returned to Vienna. The Trionfo di Glelia (1762) was the last of his operas in his first style. However well pleased the public was with his music, he was not so. He felt himself continually cramped by the character of the libretti of Metastasio, who had hitherto furnished him with texts, which were rather lyrical dramatic poems than genuine dramas. The composer at last found a poet in the person of Raniero Calzabigi, who sympathized with him in his ideas, and the result of their co-operation was the Orfeo ed Euridice, performed publicly for the first time in 1762. This opera marked a new era. The fame it acquired at once it never lost. Various works of lighter character filled up the interval between this year and 1766, when his second great opera of Alceste was produced, which raised public feeling to the point of enthusiasm.
In his dedication of this work to the Grand-duke Leopold of Tuscany he enunciates the principles of the new school, which shortly were that the opera should be a musical drama, not a concert in costume; that the text must be descriptive of real passion; that the music must voice fully the spirit of the text; that in accompaniments the instruments must be used to strengthen the expression of the vocal parts by their peculiar characters, or to heighten the general dramatic effect by employing them in contrast to the voice. Gluck now became convinced that his system must be tested on a wider field, and believed that the Royal Opera in Paris offered all a composer could demand. A Frenchman of culture and genius, Bailly du Rollet, adapted Racine's Iphigenie en Aulide for musical treatment, and after a considerable amount of opposition from the musical critics of the old Italian and French school, at that time represented in Paris by Piccini, the piece was brought out in 1774. The intensest excitement prevailed; all Paris took sides, and for a long time the Gluckists and Piccinists contended with much bitterness, but ultimately the victory remained with the Gluckists.
Shortly after the production of the Iphigenie, the Orfeo was adapted for and put on the French stage, and was followed by the Armide in 1777, by the Iphigenie en Tauride in 1779, Gluck's last important work, and by many considered his greatest. It ends the series of works which gave a direction to the operatic genius of Mehul and Cherubini in France, and of Mozart and Beethoven in Germany.
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Christopher Addison was an English politician and surgeon. He was born in 1869 at Hogsthorpe, Lincolnshire and died in 1951. Educated at Harrogate and St Bartholomew's Hospital, London where he qualified, he was for a time professor of anatomy at University College, Sheffield and editor of the Quarterly Medical Journal. In 1910 he entered politics as Liberal member of parliament for Hoxton and in 1914 became parliamentary secretary to the Board of Education. He assisted Lloyd George in the scheme for National Health Insurance, and was appointed first secretary to the new Ministry of Munitions, and in 1917 head of the new Ministry of reconstruction. In 1919 Christopher Addison became Britain's first minister of health. In 1921 following difficulties with Lloyd George Christopher Addison resigned and joined the Labour Party. He was created a baron in 1937 and in 1940 assumed leadership of the Labour peers, in 1945 becoming leader of the House of Lords.
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Christopher Anstey was an English poet. He was born in 1724 and died in 1805. He was author of The New Bath Guide, a humorous and satirical production describing fashionable life at Bath in the form of a series of letters in different varieties of metre, which had a great reputation in its day, but is now almost forgotten.
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Christopher Carson (Kit Carson) was an American hunter, scout and frontiersman. He was born in 1809 and died in 1868. He became a trapper at the age of seventeen. He acted as a guide to John Fremont in his exploration in the Rocky Mountains of 1842 to 1844 and served under him during the conquest of California in 1846 to 1847. Carson settled in New Mexico in 1854 and became United States Indian agent at Taos.
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Christopher Columbus (real name Cristoforo Colombo, known in Spanish as Christoval Colon) was an Italian navigator. He was born in 1451 at Genoa and died in 1506. His father, Domenico Colombo, a poor wool-comber, gave him a careful education. He appears to have gone to sea at an early age and to have navigated all parts of the Mediterranean and some of the coasts beyond the Straits of Gibraltar. In 1470 we find him at Lisbon, where he married the daughter of Bartolommeo de Palestrello, a distinguished navigator. He had gradually come to the conclusion that there were unknown lands belonging to Eastern Asia separated from Europe by the Atlantic: whilst the Portuguese were seeking to reach India by a south-east course round Africa he was convinced that there must be a shorter way by the west. He applied in vain to Genoa for assistance, and equally fruitless were his endeavours to interest John II of Portugal in the enterprise. He then determined to apply to the Spanish court; and after many disappointments he induced Ferdinand and Isabella to equip and man three vessels for a voyage of discovery.
It was early in the morning of Friday, on the 3rd of August, 1492, that Christopher Columbus set sail from the port of Palos, and after sailing for two months the expedition narrowly escaped failure. The variation of the needle so alarmed the crews that they were on the point of breaking out into open mutiny, and he was obliged to promise that he would turn back if three more days brought no discovery. On the third day (the 12th of October 1492) the island of Guanahani or San Salvador was sighted, which Christopher Columbus believed to belong to Eastern Asia and to be connected with India - a belief which he carried with him to his grave. Hence the mistaken name of Indians applied to the natives of America, and that of West Indies applied to the group of islands of which Guanahani forms one.
On landing Christopher Columbus threw himself upon his knees and kissed the earth, returning thanks to God. The natives collected round him in silent astonishment, and his men, ashamed of their disobedience and distrust, threw themselves at his feet, begging his forgiveness. Christopher Columbus, drawing his sword, planted the royal standard, and in the name of his sovereigns took possession of the country, which, in memory of his preservation, he called San Salvador. He then sailed in search of other lands, and discovered Cuba, St Domingo, and some other of the West India islands. Being so far successful, he built a fort at Hispaniola, Haiti, left some of his men there, and set out on his return to Europe, where he was received with almost royal honours.
In 1493 he set out on his second great voyage from Cadiz, with three large ships of heavy burden and fourteen caravels, carrying 1500 men. He discovered .the island of Dominica, and afterwards Mariegalante, Guadeloupe, and Porto Rico, and at length arrived at Hispaniola. Finding the colony destroyed, he built a fortified town, which he called, in honour of the queen, Isabella. He then left the island in order to make new discoveries, visited Jamaica, and returning after a voyage of five months, worn down with fatigue, found to his great joy that his brother Bartolommeo had arrived at Isabella with provisions and other supplies for the colony.
Meanwhile a general dissatisfaction had broken out among his companions, who, instead of the expected treasures, had found hardships and labour. This and news of calumnies being set on foot against him at home induced him to return to Spain, where his presence, and probably also the treasure he brought, silenced his enemies.
In May, 1498, he sailed with six vessels on his third voyage. Three of his vessels he sent direct to Hispaniola; with the three others he took a more southerly direction, and having discovered Trinidad and the continent of America, returned to Hispaniola, His colony had now been removed from Isabella, according to his orders, to the other side of the island, and a new fortress erected called St Domingo. Christopher Columbus found the colony in a state of confusion, but soon restored tranquillity. His enemies, in the meantime, endeavoured to convince his sovereigns that his plan was to make himself independent, and Christopher Columbus was not only displaced, but Francisco de Bobadilla, a new governor who had come from Spain, even sent him to that country in chains.
On his arrival in 1500 orders were sent directing him to be set at liberty and inviting him to court, but for this injurious treatment he never got redress, though great promises were made. After some time he was able to set out on his fourth and last voyage, in 1502, in four slender vessels supplied by the court. In this expedition he was accompanied by his brother Bartolommeo and his son Hernando. He encountered every imaginable disaster from storms and shipwreck, and returned to Spain, sick and exhausted, in 1504. The death of the queen soon followed, and he urged in vain on Ferdinand the fulfilment of his promises; but after two years of illness, humiliations, and despondency, Christopher Columbus died at Valladolid. His remains were transported, according to his will, to St Domingo, but on the cession of Hispaniola to France they were removed to Havana in Cuba in 1796. In 1899 they were carried back to Spain.
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Sir Christopher Cradock was a British sailor. He was born in 1862 and died in 1914. He entered the Navy in 1875 and served in the Egyptian campaign in 1884 and the Sudan in 1891. He commanded the naval brigade at the relief of Peking in 1900 and was appointed rear-admiral in 1910. He went down on the Monmouth on November 1st 1914 whilst trying to protect southern trade routes during the Great War.
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Christopher Del Sesto was an American politician. He was a Republican governor of Rhode Island from 1959 until 1961.
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Christopher Fry is an English dramatist. He was born in 1907.
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Christopher Gore was an American politician. He was a Federalist governor of Massachusetts from 1809 until 1810.
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Christopher Greene was an American soldier. He was born in 1737 and died in 1781. He served in the Rhode Island Legislature from 1772 to 1774, was appointed commander in Arnold's expedition to Quebec and in 1777 made a brilliant defence of Fort Mercer against the Hessians.
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Christopher Greenup was an American politician. He was a Democratic- Republican governor of Kentucky from 1804 until 1808.
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Sir Christopher Hatton was a Lord-chancellor of England. He was born in about 1540 and died in 1591. A favourite of Queen Elizabeth I, he was introduced at court in 1564. He was elected a member of parliament in 1571, became captain of the queen's guard in 1572, vice-chamberlain and a privy-councillor in 1577, lord-chancellor in 1587. He was one of the commissioners for the trial of Mary, queen of Scots, in 1586.
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Christopher I was king of Denmark in 1252. He was poisoned.
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Christopher II was king of Denmark in 1320.
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Christopher III was king of Denmark and Sweden in 1440.
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Christopher Isherwood is an Anglo-American novelist and playwright. He was born in 1904.
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Christopher Marlowe was an English dramatist. He was born in 1564 at Canterbury and died in 1593. He wrote ' Doctor Faustus'; 'The Jew of Malta'; 'Tamburlaine'.
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Christopher Newport was an English colonist. He was born about 1565. He was one of the founders of Jamestown, Virgina in 1606. In 1608 he brought settlers and supplies to the colonists from England and returned with a cargo of yellow mica, thinking it was gold. He again went over to America in 1610 with Lord Delaware. He returned to England in 1612. He wrote 'Discoveries in America.'
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Christopher S Bond was an American politician. He was a Republican governor of Missouri from 1981 until 1985.
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Christopher Smart was an English poet. He was born in 1722 at Shipbourne, Kent and died in 1771. Educated at Pembroke College, Cambridge of which he became a fellow in 1745, he quickly established a reputation as a facile versifier, but through a liking for drinking and a lavish lifestyle he sank into a position of a book seller's general assistant in London before twice attending a lunatic asylum and finally dying in a debtors' prison.
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Sir Christopher Wren was an English architect. He was born in 1632 at East Knoyle and died in 1723. He designed St Paul's Cathedral in London after the Great Fire Of London in 1666 destroyed the Gothic church of St Paul which stood on the site.
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Chrysippus was an ancient Greek philosopher belonging to Cilicia, who lived about 282 to 209 BC. He was the principal opponent of the Epicureans, and is said to have written 700 different works, mostly of a dialectical character; but only a variety of fragments have survived.
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The Chukches are a nomadic race in the extreme north-east of Asia. They are a mixed race, but with predominantly Mongolian features.
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The Chunchos are an aboriginal tribe of Indians living in the wooded parts of eastern Peru where they raise crops of maize, yuccas, plantains and pineapples. They live in large huts containing three or four family groups and are ruled by hereditary chiefs.
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Churchwardens are officers, generally two for each parish in England, who superintend the church, its property and concerns. They are annually chosen by the minister and parishioners, according to the custom of each parish.
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Cimabue (real name Giovanni Gualtieri) was an Italian painter. He was born in 1240 at Florence and died in 1302. Two Greek artists, who were invited to Florence to paint a chapel in the church of Santa Maria Novella, were his first masters. He is considered one of the chief restorers of the art of painting in Italy, which at that time had degenerated into mechanical conventionalism. His best paintings are in the church of Santa Maria Novella at Florence, and in the Sacro Convento at Assist. Among his pupils was Giotto, whom he discovered drawing figures on the smooth surface of a rock while tending his sheep.
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The Cimbri were a Teutonic race who first emerged in 113 BC when they defeated the Romans in Carinthia. They migrated to Gaul where they defeated the Roman consul in 109 BC and again in 105 BC at Orange. They invaded Spain and then with the assistance of other Teutonic tribes overran Gaul and attempted to invade Italy. They were defeated by the Romans at Aquae Sextiae in 102 BC and at Vercellae in 101 BC.
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The Cimmerians were an ancient nomadic tribe who occupied the Tauric Chersonese (Crimea) and Asiatic Sarmatia (the country of the lower Volga). They are said, in pre-Homeric times, to have ravaged Asia Minor, and in a second invasion to have penetrated to AEolis and Ionia, and to have held possession of Sardis. A mythical people mentioned in the Odyssey as dwelling beyond the ocean-stream in the thickest gloom were also termed Cimmerii, a fable which gave rise to the phrase Cimmerian darkness.
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Cimon was an ancient Athenian general and statesman. He lived around the 5th century BC. He was a son of the great Miltiades. He fought against the Persians in the battle of Salamis in 480 BC and shared with Aristides the chief command of the fleet sent to Asia to deliver the Greek colonies from the Persian yoke.
The return of Aristides to Athens soon after left Cimon at the head of the whole naval force of Greece. He distinguished himself by his achievements in Thrace, having defeated the Persians by the Strymon, and made himself master of the country. He conquered the pirate-island of Scyros, subdued all the cities on the coast of Asia Minor, pursued the Persian fleet up the Eurymedon, destroyed more than 200 of their ships, and then, having landed, on the same day entirely defeated their army in 469 BC. He employed the spoil which he had taken in the embellishment of Athens, and in 463 reduced the revolted Thasians; but the popular leaders, beginning to fear his power, charged him on his return with having been corrupted by the King of Macedon. The charge was dropped, but when Cimon's policy of friendship to the Lacedaemonians ended in the latter insulting the troops sent by Athens to their aid, his opponents secured his banishment.
He retired into Boeotia, and his request to be allowed to fight with the Athenians against the Lacedaemonians in 457 at Tanagra was refused by the suspicious generals. Eventually Cimon was recalled at the instance of Pericles to conclude a peace with Lacedaemon. He died shortly after, in 449, while besieging Citium in Cyprus.
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Lucius Quinutius Cincinnatus was a Roman dictator. He was born in 520 BC and died in 440 BC. He held power on two occasions. Once for 14 days and then again for 12 days. During his periods in power he freed Rome from her enemies, and then returned to his farm refusing all rewards. After violently opposing the passage of the Terentilian law for the equalization at law of patricians and plebeians, he succeeded Publicola in the consulship, and then retired to cultivate his small estate beyond the Tiber. Here, when Minucius was surrounded by the AEquians, the messengers of the senate found him at work when they came to summon him to the dictatorship. He rescued the army from its peril, marched to Rome laden with spoil, and then returned quietly to his farm. At the age of eighty he was again appointed dictator to oppose the ambitious designs of Spurius Maelius.
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Cindy Morgan is an American pop musician, primarily a singer she sings gospel inspired Christian music.
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Cino da Pistoia was an Italian poet and jurist. He was born in 1270 and died in 1336.
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Circumnavigators is a term usually applied to the early navigators who sailed round the globe. Magellan, a Portuguese in the service of Spain, headed the first expedition which succeeded in circomnavigating the globe, though he did not live to complete the voyage. He sailed with five ships from San Lucar on September the 20th, 1519, passed the straits named after him in November 1520, and was killed in the Philippine Islands in April, 1521, Juan Sebastian del Cano continuing the voyage and reaching San Lucar with the only remaining ship in September 1522. The principal early navigators, after Magellan, who succeeded in making the voyage round the globe were Grijalva and Alvaradi (Spaniards), 1537; Mendana (Spanish), 1567; Drake (English), 1577-80; Cavendish, 1586-88; LeMaire (Dutch), 1615-17; Quiros (Spanish), 1625; Tasman (Dutch), 1642; Cowley, 1683; Dampier, 1689; Cooke, 1708; Clipperton,1719; Roggewein (Dutch), 1721-23; Anson, 1740-44; Byron, 1764-66;
Wallis, 1766-68; Carteret, 1766-69; Bougainville, 1766-69; Cook, 1768-71; and Portlocke, 1788.
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Ciro Ale'Gria was a Peruvian novelist. He was born in 1900 and died in 1967. He was imprisoned and fled to Chile where he lived in exile.
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The Cistercians are a religious order named from its original convent, Citteaux (Cistercium), not far from Dijon, in Eastern France,
where the society was formed in 1098 by Robert, abbot of Molesme, under the strictest observance of the rule of St Benedict. The Cistercians led a severely ascetic and contemplative life, and having freed themselves from episcopal supervision, formed a kind of spiritual republic under a high council of twenty-five members, with the abbot of Citeaux as president. Next to Citeaux the four chief monasteries were La Forte, Pontigny, Clairvaux (founded by the celebrated St Bernard in 1115), and Morimond. In France they called themselves Bernardines in honour of St Bernard. Among the fraternities emanating from. them the most remarkable were the Barefooted monks, or Feuillants, and the nuns of Port Royal, in France; the Recollets, or reformed Cistercians; and the monks of La Trappe. There were a hundred Cistercian houses in England at the dissolution of monasteries. The general fate of religious orders during the French revolution reduced the Cistercians to a few convents in Spain, Poland, Austria, etc. There are still two or three houses in the British Isles. The Cistercians wear white robes with black scapularies.
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Claiborne F Jackson was an American politician. He was a Democratic governor of Missouri during 1861.
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A Clan (Gaelic for a tribe or family), among the Highlanders of Scotland, consisted of the common descendants of the same progenitor, under the patriarchal control of a chief, who represented the common ancestor. The name of the clan was frequently formed of that of the original progenitor with the affix mac (son): thus the MacDonalds were the sons of Donald, and every individual of this name was considered a descendant of the founder of the clan, and a brother of every one of its members. The chief exercised his authority by right of primogeniture, as the father of his clan: the clansmen revered and served the chief with the blind devotion of children.
The clans each occupied a certain portion of the country, and hostilities with neighbouring clans were extremely common. Next in rank to the chief were a certain number of persons, commonly near relations of the chief, to whom portions of land were assigned, during pleasure or on short leases. Each of these usually had a subdivision of the clan under him, of which he was chieftain, subject, however, to the general head of the sept. The jurisdiction of the chiefs was not very accurately defined, and it was necessary to consult, in some measure, the opinions of the most influential clansmen and the general wishes of the whole body. It was latterly the policy of the government in Scotland to oblige the clans to find a representative of rank to become security at court for their good behaviour; the clans who could not procure a suitable representative, or who were unwilling to do so, were called broken clans, and existed in a sort of outlawry
The most notable instance of a proscribed and persecuted clan was that of the ancient clan MacGregor, who long continued to hold their lands by the coir a glaive, or right of the sword. The rebellions of 1715 and 1745 induced the British government to break up the connection which subsisted between the chiefs and the clansmen. The hereditary jurisdiction of the chiefs was therefore abolished, the people disarmed, and even compelled to relinquish their national dress. Few traces of this institution now remain, except such as have a merely sentimental character; thus all those who possess the same clan name may still talk of their 'chief,' though the latter have now neither land nor influence.
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Clan-na-Gael was an Irish-American secret society based in Chicago which played a prominent part in the home rule agitation of the 1880s.
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The Clapham Sect was a name given to the evangelical party in the Church of England by Sydney Smith in the latter part of the 18th century after the fact that several eminent members of the party lived in Clapham.
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Clara Barton was the founder of the American Red Cross. She was born in 1821 at Oxford, Massachusetts and died in 1912. Working at the US patent office, on the outbreak of the American Civil War in 1861 she organised volunteers to help the sick and wounded on the battlefield and in hospitals. After the war President Lincoln commissioned her to locate and identify prisoners and the dead buried in unmarked graves. In 1869 she went to Europe and participated in relief efforts during the Franco-Prussian War and worked with the International Committee of the Red Cross. In 1882 the US ratified the Geneva Convention and appointed Clara Barton as president of the American Red Cross. She resigned from the Red Cross in 1904.
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Clara Mass was an American nurse. She was born in 1876 at East Orange, New Jersey and died in 1901 at Havana, Cuba of yellow fever. She was the only woman and the only American to die during the yellow fever experiments of 1900 to 1901. After graduating from the Newark German Hospital School of Nursing in 1895 she volunteered to serve as a contract nurse with the U.S. Army Medical Department at the outbreak of the Spanish-American war of 1898. During her first term of service she worked at army camps in Florida, Georgia, and Cuba. She volunteered again in 1900 and was sent first to the Philippines and then back to Cuba, where at the Las Animas Hospital in Havana, she volunteered to take part in an experiment conducted by Major William C Gorgas and John Guiteras on yellow fever immunization. The experiment involved her being infected with the disease, from which she promptly died ten days later.
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Clarence D Martin was an American politician. He was a Democratic governor of Washington from 1933 until 1941.
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Clarence J Morley was an American politician. He was a Republican governor of Colorado from 1925 until 1927.
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Clarence W Meadows was an American politician. He was a Democratic governor of West Virginia from 1945 until 1949.
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Clarkson Stanfield was an English marine painter. He was born in 1793 at Sunderland and died in 1867. He served in the navy, but was subsequently disabled and became a scene-painter first in Edinburgh and then in London.
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Claude A Swanson was an American politician. He was a Democratic governor of Virginia from 1906 until 1910.
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Claude Bernard was a French physiologist. He was born 1813 and died in 1878. He studied at Paris and held in succession chairs of physiology in the Faculty of Sciences, the College of France, and the Museum. Amongst his many works may be cited his Researches on the Functions of the Pancreas, 1849; on the Sympathetic System, 1852; Experimental Physiology in its Relation to Medicine, 1855 to 56 ; On the Physiological Properties and Pathological Alterations of the various Liquids of the Organism, 1859; and his Nutrition and Development, 1860.
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Count Claude Louis Bethollet was a French chemist. He was born in 1748 and died in 1822. He studied medicine; became connected with Lavoisier and was admitted in 1780 a member of the Academy of Sciences at Paris. In 1794 he became professor in the normal school there. He followed Bonaparte to Egypt, and returned with him in 1799. Notwithstanding the various honours conferred on him by Napoleon he voted in 1814 for his dethronement, and was made a peer by Louis XVIII. His chief chemical discoveries were connected with the analysis of ammonia, the use of chlorine in bleaching, the artificial production of nitre, etc. His most important works were his Essai de Statique Chimique (1803), and the Methode de Nomenclature Ohimique (1787).
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Claude Alexandre Bonneval (Count Bonneval) was a French adventurer. He was born in 1675 of an illustrious French family and died in 1747. In the war of the Spanish Succession he obtained a regiment, and distinguished himself by his valour as well as by his excesses. On his return to France he was obliged to fly in consequence of some expressions against the minister and Madame de Maintenon. Received into the service of Prince Eugene he now fought against his native country, and, after performing many signal services, he was raised in 1716 to the rank of lieutenant field-marshal in the Austrian service, and distinguished himself against the Turks at Peterwardein. But his reckless and impatient spirit brought him into conflict with the superior authorities, and he finally took refuge in Constantinople (Istanbul), where he was well received. He was now converted to Islam, submitted to circumcision, received the name of Achmet, was made a pasha of three tails, and as general of a division of the army achieved some considerable successes against Russians and Austrians. The memoirs of his life published under his name are not genuine.
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Claude Bourgelat was a French veterinary surgeon. He was born in 1712 and died in 1779. He established the first veterinary school in his native town in 1762, and his works on the art furnished a complete course of veterinary instruction.
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Claude Achille Debussy was a French composer. He was born in 1862 and died in 1918. He was leader of the French impressionist school in music.
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Claude Duval was an English highwayman. He was born in 1643 in Normandy and died in 1670. He came to England during the Restoration and became noted for his audacity and gallantry, chiefly on the Bath and Portsmouth roads. He was captured near Covent Garden, London and executed at Tyburn.
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Claude Fleury was a French writer. He was born in 1640 and died in 1723. He was educated in the Jesuit College at Clermont, and after beginning to practise as a lawyer resolved to take orders. In 1672 he became the tutor of the young princes of Conti, and afterwards associated with Fenelon in the education of the young dukes of Burgundy, Anjou, and Berri. In 1716 he became confessor to Louis XV. He had procured admission into the Academy in 1696 by several important works, among which the best known are his Histoire du Droit Francais, Moeurs des Israelites, Moeurs des Chretiens, Institution au Droit ecclesiastique, Histoire Ecclesiastique.
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Claude Goudimel was a French composer. He was born in 1510 and died in 1572 being killed during the St Bartholomew massacres at Lyons. Palestrina was one of his pupils at Rome. His most important work is a setting of the French version of the Psalms by Marot and Beza.
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Claude Graham-White was a British aviator and aeronautical engineer. He was born in 1879. He was the first Englishman to be granted an aviator's certificate. In 1909 he started a school of aviation at Pau and in 1910 won the international race in America.
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Claude Admen Helvetius was a French philosophical writer. He was born in 1715 and died in 1771. Having made a fortune as a farmer-general, he devoted himself to philosophic work. In 1758 he published his one important book, De l'Esprit (On the Mind), the materialism of which drew upon him many attacks. It was condemned by the Sorbonne, and publicly burned by decree of the Parliament of Paris. In 1764 he went to England, and the year afterwards to Germany, where Frederick the Great and other German princes received him with many proofs of esteem. He also wrote a work, De l'Homme, and an allegorical poem, Le Bonheur.
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Claude Lorraine (real name Claude Gelee) was a French landscape painter. He was born in 1600 at Charmagne, Lorraine and died in 1682. When twelve years old he went to live with his brother, an engraver in wood at Friburg, went from him to study under Godfrey Waats at Naples, and was afterwards employed at Rome by the painter Agostino Tassi, to grind his colours and do the household drudgery.
On leaving Tassi he travelled in Italy, France, and Germany, but settled in Rome in 1627, where his works were greatly sought for, and where he lived much at his ease until 1682, when he died of the gout.
The principal galleries of Italy, France, England, Spain, and Germany are adorned with his paintings; that on which he himself set the greatest value being the painting of a small wood belonging to the Villa Madama (Rome). He excelled in luminous atmospheric effects, of which he made loving and elaborate studies. His figure work, however, was inferior, and the figures in many of his paintings were supplied by Lauri and Francesco Allegrini. He made small copies of all his pictures in six books known as Libri di Verity (Books of Truth), which form a work of great value (usually called the Liber Veritatis), and much esteemed by students.
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Claude Matthews was an American politician. He was a Democratic governor of Indiana from 1893 until 1897.
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Claude Etienne Minie was a French gunsmith. He was born in 1814 at Paris and died in 1879. He served in the army in Africa, and in 1849 invented the Minie rifle and bullet. In 1858 he retired from the army and directed the small-arms factory and the school of musketry at Cairo.
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Claude Oscra Monet was a French impressionist painter. He was born in 1840 at Havre and died in 1926.
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Claude Perrault was a French architect. He was born in 1613 at Paris and died in 1688. He was the brother of Charles Perrault. He studied medicine, but gave it up for the fine arts. His greatest work was the colonnade of the Louvre.
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Claude R Kirk Jr was an American politician. He was a Republican governor of Florida from 1967 until 1971.
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Claude Adhemar Andre Theuriet was a French poet and novelist. He was born in 1833 at Marly-le-Roi and died in 1907. Educated at Bar-le-Duc and at Paris, h worked for the Civil Service from 1857 until 1886. After publishing several volumes of verse, in 1867 he turned to writing fiction, especially renowned for their descriptions of nature and rustic life. In 1896 he became a member of the Academy.
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Claudine Alexandrine Guerin de Tencin was a French novelist. She was born in 1681 at Grenoble and died in 1749. A failed Nun, she was released from her vows and in 1714 went to Paris where she established a Saloon and had numerous lovers (as was typical of the time in both England and France), including Richelieu and cardinal Guillaume Dubois.
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Claudio Abbador is an Italian conductor. He was born in 1933 at Milan. He made his debut as an opera conductor at La Scala Milan in 1960, becoming musical director there in 1968, a post he held until 1986. He was principal conductor of the London Symphony Orchestra from 1979 to 1988, moving to the Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra in 1989.
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Claudio Arrau was a Chilean pianist. He was born in 1903 and died in 1991. He gave his first recital when he was five years old and was sponsored by the Chilean government, studying music at Berlin's Stern Conservatory from 1912 until 1918 and subsequently taught there from 1924 until 1940.
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Claudio Monteverde was an Italian composer. He was born in 1567 at Cremona and died in 1643. As a child he became a violinist in the service of the duke of Mantua. In 1602 he was made master of the chapel of Mantua, and in 1613 left to become master of music at St Mark's in Venice. He composed the operas 'Arianna' and 'Orfeo'.
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Claudio Monteverdi was an Italian composer. He was born in 1567 at Cremona and died in 1643. He wrote a lot of church music.
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Claudius Buchanan was a Scottish missionary in India. He was born in 1766 at Cambuslang, Scotland and died in 1815. He was educated at the Universities of Glasgow and Cambridge; became chaplain to the East India Company in 1795; and in 1800 was appointed professor of Greek, Latin, and English, and vice-provost in the college at Fort-William. He returned to Europe in 1808, and in 1811 published his Christian Researches in Asia, with a Notice of the Translation of the Scriptures into the Oriental Languages.
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Claudius Claudianus (commonly called Claudian), was a Latin poet, a native of Alexandria, he lived at the end of the 4th and beginning of the 5th century, under the Emperor Theodosius and his sons. He did much to recall to dying Rome the splendours of the Augustan literature, ranking considerably above any other of the later poets. Besides several panegyrical poems on Honorius, Stilicho, and others, we possess two of his epic poems, the Rape of Proserpine, and an unfinished War of the Giants, eclogues, epigrams, and occasional poems.
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Claudius Galenus (Claudius Galen) was an ancient Greek medical writer and physician. He was born in 130, at Pergamus in Asia Minor and died in 200. His father, Nicon, an architect and mathematician, gave him a careful education, and he studied under physicians in Smyrna, Corinth, Alexandria, etc, afterwards visiting Cilicia, Phoenicia, and Palestine. He returned in 103 to Pergamus, where he received a public appointment, but five years later went to Rome, and there acquired great celebrity by his cures.
Driven thence by envy, he again travelled for some time and resumed his labours in his native town, but was soon after invited to Aquileia by the Emperors Marcus Aurelins and Lucius Verus in 169.
He followed Marcus Aurelius to Rome, and appears to have remained there for some years before finally retiring to Pergamus. The closing part of his life, however, is obscure. One Arabic writer says that he died in Sicily, and Suidas states that he died at the age of seventy, and accordingly in the year 200 or 201, but it is not improbable that he lived longer.
The writings attributed to Galen include eighty-three treatises acknowledged to be genuine, forty-five manifestly spurious; nineteen of doubtful genuineness, and fifteen commentaries on different works of Hippocrates, besides a large number of short pieces and fragments, probably in great part spurious. The most valuable of his works were those dealing with anatomy and physiology, and he was the first to establish the consultation of the pulse in diagnosis and prognosis. Untill the middle of the 16th century his authority in medicine was supreme.
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Claudius I (Tiberius Claudius Drusus Nero Germanicus) was a Roman emperor. He was born in 10 BC at Lyons and died in 54. The son of Claudius Drusus Nero, stepson of Augustus and Antonia, the daughter of Augustus's sister he lived in privacy, occupying himself with literature, the composition of a Roman history, and other works, until the murder of Caligula, when he was dragged from, his hiding - place and proclaimed emperor in 41 AD. The early years of his reign were marked by the restoration of the exiles, the embellishment of Rome, the addition of Mauritania to the Roman provinces, and successes in Germany and Britain. But latterly he became debauched, left the government to his wives, and in particular to Messalina, who with his freedmen committed the greatest enormities. He was poisoned by his fourth wife, Agrippina so that her son, Nero could be emperor.
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Clearchus was a Spartan general in the 5th century BC. His tyrannical rule of Byzantium resulted in his overthrow. He joined Cyrus' Persian army and assisted him against his brother. When Cyrus was killed at the battle of Cunaxa in 401 BC, Clearchus assumed command but was captured and killed by Artaxerxes.
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Clemens Brentano was a German poet and romancer. He was born in 1777 and died in 1842. He studied at Jena, and resided successively at Frankfort, Heidelberg, Vienna, and Berlin.
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Clement Richard Attlee (Lord Attlee) was a British politician. He was born in 1883 at Putney and died in 1967. Educated at University College, Oxford he was called to the Bar in 1905. A socialist, in 1919 he became the first Labour mayor of Stepney and in 1922 entered parliament and became Ramsay Macdonald's parliamentary secretary. In 1931 he became deputy-leader of the opposition and in 1935 succeeded George Lansbury as leader of the Labour Party, and in 1945 became Prime Minister, his government being responsible for social reform following the Second World War, including the establishment of the National Health Service. He was once more leader of the opposition from 1951 until he retired in 1955 and was made an earl.
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Clement Burke was premier drummer with the 70's punk band Blondie. He also provided backing vocals for many tracks.
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Clement C Young was an American politician. He was a Republican governor of California from 1927 until 1931.
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Clement Clarke Moore was an American poet. He was born in 1779 at New York and died in 1863. Educated at Columbia College, he became a scholar of Hebrew and professor of Oriental and Greek literature. He is best known for inventing the modern Father Christmas or Santa Claus, as the jolly fat man with a white beard who visits houses at Christmas, which he describes in his poem 'Twas the Night Before Christmas' also known as 'A Visit from St Nicholas' which he wrote in reaction to the anti-social behaviour witnessed in New York at Christmas time when roving gangs of poor young men called at the houses of the rich and demanded Christmas comfort, Clement Clarke Moore and his peers wishing - and succeeding - to switch the focus of the Christmas celebrations onto the giving of presents to children rather than the poor.
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Clement Comer Clay was an American politician. He was a Democratic governor of Alabama from 1835 until 1837.
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Clement Francois Theodore Dubois was a French musical composer. He was born at Rosnay, Marne in 1837. He studied at the Paris Conservatoire under Ambroise Thomas and Benott. His cantata Atala gained for him the Grand Priz de Rome in 1861. He visited Rome, and on his return to Paris he became choirmaster of St. Clotilde, and later organist at the Madeleine Church; was appointed professor of harmony at the conservatoire in 1871, and professor of composition in 1891; and in 1896 he succeeded Ambroise Thomas as director. His compositions, although not of the first rank, nevertheless stamp him as a musician of talent. In addition to his sacred and orchestral works, he composed the oratorios Les Sept Paroles du Christ in 1867, and Le Paradis Perdu, which gained the musical prize at Paris in 1878; the comic opera La Guzla de L'Emir in 1873, the ballet Farandole in 1883, the lyrical drama Aben-Hamed in 1884, and the dramatic idyll Xaviere in 1885.
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Clement of Alexandria (real name Titus Flavius Clemens), was a Christian missionary in the 2nd and at the beginning of the 3rd century. He was converted from paganism to Christianity, and after travelling in Greece, Italy, and the East, became presbyter of the church of Alexandria, and teacher of the celebrated school in that city, in which place he succeeded Pantaenus, his teacher, and was succeeded by Origen, his pupil. His chief remaining works are the Protreptikos, Paidagogos, and Stromateis or Stromata (Patchwork) ; the first an exhortation to the Greeks to turn to the one true God, the second a work on Christ, the last a collection of brief discussions in chronology, philosophy, poetry, etc. Few of the early Christians had so wide a knowledge of Greek philosophy and literature, and it is as a higher philosophic scheme that he mainly discusses Christianity. He was regarded as a saint until Benedict XIV struck him off the calendar.
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Clement of Rome (real name Clemens Romanus) was of the 'Apostolic Fathers'. He is said to have been the second or the third successor of Peter as bishop of Rome, and the first of the numerous popes named Clement. He is perhaps identical with Consul Flavius Clemens, put to death under Domitian in 95. Various writings are attributed to him, but the only one that can be regarded as genuine is an Epistle to the Corinthians, first obtained in a complete form in 1875. It is of importance as exhibiting the first attempt of the Church of Rome to exercise ecclesiastical authority over other churches.
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Clement William Scott was an English dramatic critic. He was born in 1841 at Hoxton, London and died in 1904. He entered the War Office in 1860 and retired in 1877. In 1872 he became dramatic critic to 'The Daily Telegraph', a position he held until a few years before his death. In 1900 he founded the 'Free Lance'.
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Clement Laird Vallandighma was an American lawyer and politician. Je was born in 1822 and died in 1871. A lawyer and active Democratic politician in Ohio, he served in the Legislature of that State, and was Congressman from 1857 until 1863. He bitterly opposed the Government as the American Civil War progressed, and became noted as the most extreme of Northern sympathizers with the Confederacy. General Ambrose E. Burnside arrested him, and he was banished. From the Confederate States he went to Canada, and while there was nominated for Governor by the Ohio Democrats in 1863. He was defeated by Brough by a majority of 100,000. The following year he was a member of the Democratic National Convention.
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Cleobulus was one of the seven wise men of ancient Greece. A native of Lindus, he travelled to Egypt to learn wisdom, and became King of Rhodes. He lived around 560 BC.
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Cleombrotus was king of Sparta from 380 to 371 BC. He carried on a war against the Thebans which in 371 BC the Thebans won a decisive victory at Leuctra and Cleombrotus was killed.
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Cleomenes III was king of Sparta.The last of the Heraclidae, he was king from 236 to 220 BC. He intended to reform Sparta and to restore the institutions of Lycurgus, and therefore put to death the Ephori, made a new division of lands, introduced again the old Spartan system of education, made his brother his colleague, and extended the franchise. He was defeated by the allied Macedonians and Achseans at the battle of Sellasia in 222 BC, and fled to Egypt, where he was supported by Ptolemy Euergetes, but was kept in confinement by the succeeding Ptolemy. He escaped and attempted to raise a revolt, but failing, committed suicide.
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Cleon was an Athenian demagogue. Originally a tanner by trade. He was well known in public before the death of Pericles, and in 427 BC distinguished himself by the proposal to put to death the adult males of the revolted Mytileneans and sell the women and children as slaves. In 425 he took Sphacteria from the Spartans; but in 423 and 422 he was violently attacked by Aristophanes in the Knights and in the Wasps. He was sent, however, in 422 against Brasidas, but allowed himself to be taken unawares, and was killed while attempting to escape.
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Cleopatra was a name of Egyptian queens.
The most famous Cleopatra was Cleopatra VI, who was the last Queen of Egypt. According to Roman propaganda and legend she was born in 69 BC of Macedonian descent and became joint ruler with her brother, Ptolemy XIV in 52 BC. Exiled by her brother she retired to Syria and secured the aid of Julius Caesar. Ptolemy XIV was killed and Cleopatra was made Queen whereupon she returned to Rome with Caesar as his mistress.
On Caesar's death in 44 BC Cleopatra returned to Egypt and declared Caesarion, her son by Caesar, joint ruler. Mark Anthony now became her lover and put Caesarion to death. Cleopatra killed herself with the bite of an asp after failing to win favour with the new Roman Emperor Octavius and fearing capture.
It is far more likely that the Arabic accounts of Cleopatra are more accurate than the Roman, as Cleopatra was a political enemy of the Roman Empire. The Arabic accounts describe Cleopatra as an accomplished and effective ruler, scholar, alchemist, scientist and physician who effectively challenged Roman rule in the Eastern Mediterranean and who was the antipathy of Roman values.
Whether Cleopatra committed suicide or not is not known. The Roman propaganda, so popular with the Victorian British would have us believe so, but modern scholars researching Cleopatra consider it unlikely that Cleopatra would have killed herself.
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Clergy is the body of ecclesiastical persons, in contradistinction to the laity. The Greek word came in to use to indicate that this class waste be considered as the particular inheritance and property of God, or else, which is more probable, because it was customary to select by lot those set apart for special religious functions. At first there was no strongly-marked distinction between clergy and laity, but the former soon drew apart, consisting, after the apostolic age, of bishops, priests, and deacons, and in the 4th century of many additional inferior orders, such as sub-deacons, acolytes, etc. With the increased complexity of the hierarchy there was a steady accretion of privileges until the burden of these became intolerable to the laity.
The Episcopalians recognize three classes of clergy - bishops, priests, and deacons; and generally hold the doctrine of the apostolic succession. Large numbers of Protestants however, reject this dogma, and believe in the ministry of only one order. The Catholic clergyman, according to the doctrine of the Roman Catholic Church, is endowed in his spiritual character with a supernatural power, which distinguishes him essentially from the layman. Regular clergy are those who live according to monastic rule, secular clergy those who do not.
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A Clerk of the Peace is a county lawyer who gives advice to the Justices of the Peace and keeps records of his county.
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Cleveland Abbe was an American meteorologist. He was born in 1838 at New York and died in 1916. He published works on the atmosphere and climate and introduced the American system of Standard Time.
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In ancient Rome, clients were citizens of the lower ranks who chose a patron from the higher classes, whose duty it was to advise and assist them, particularly in legal cases, and in general to protect them. The clients, on the other hand, were obliged to portion the daughters of the patron if he had not sufficient fortune; to follow him to the wars; to vote for him if he was candidate for an office, etc. This relation continued until the time of the emperors.
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Cliff Finch was an American politician. He was a Democratic governor of Mississippi from 1976 until 1980.
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Clifford Bastin is an English Association football player. He was born in 1912. He played as an inside forward for Exeter City before joining Arsenal where he played as an outside left and contributed to the clubs success during the 1930's. Between 1932 and 1938 he made 21 appearances for England, scoring twelve goals. He later reverted to playing inside forward and finally wing half.
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Clifford P Hansen was an American politician. He was a Republican governor of Wyoming from 1963 until 1967.
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Clifford R Powell was an American politician. He was a Republican governor of New Jersey during 1935.
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Clifford Walker was an American politician. He was a Democratic governor of Georgia from 1923 until 1927.
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Clinton Clauson was an American politician. He was a Democratic governor of Maine during 1959.
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Clitus was the foster-brother of Alexander the Great. He saved Alexander's life at the Granicus, but was afterwards killed by him in a fit of drunkeness, an act for which Alexander always showed the bitterest remorse.
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Sir Clive Sinclair is the English electronics genius who produced the first widely available pocket calculator and a series of home computers.
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Clodion the Hairy was king of the Salic Franks in 428.
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Publius Clodius Pulcher was a notorious public character of ancient Rome. The son of Appius Claudius Pulcher, who was consul about 79 BC, He served in the third Mithridatic war under Lucullus, and filled different high posts in the provinces of the East, where his turbulence was the cause of serious disturbances. Returning to Rome, he became a popular demagogue, was elected tribune in 59 BC, was the means of procuring Cicero's banishment, and continued to be a ringleader in all the seditions of the time until killed in an encounter between his followers and those of Titus Annius Milo.
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Clopton Havers was a British physician and anatomist. He was born in 1655 and died in 1702. He was a doctor in London and carried out and published a study of the bones, producing the first accurate description of the structure of the bones, and discovered the 'Haversian canals' in them.
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Clotaire I was king of the Merovingian Franks. He was born in 497 and died in 561. he was the youngest son of Lovis and Clotilde, and received the northern third of the kingdom when it was divided between himself and his brothers in 511. He joined Childebert in the slaughter of the sons of their brother Clodomir, and in the conquest of Burgundy, which they divided between them in 532.
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Clotaire II was king of the Franks. He was born in 584 and died in 628. He succeeded his father, Chilperic I, as king when he was four months old under the guardianship of his mother Fredegonda, and became sole king in 613. He overran Austrasia and Burgundy, captured and put to death Brunhild, seized her dominions, and reunited under his sway the empire of Clovis.
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Clovis (also known as Clovis the Great) was King of the Salian Franks. He was born in 465 and died in 511. He succeeded his father Childeric in 481. In 486 he overthrew the Roman governor at Soissons and occupied the country between the Somme and the Loire. The influence of his wife Clotilda, a Burgundian princess, at length converted him to Christianity, and in 496, he was baptized with several thousands of his Franks at Rheims, and was saluted by Pope Anastasius as 'most Christian king,' he being orthodox, while most of the western princes were Arians. It now became his object to rid himself by all means of all the other Frankish rulers, in order that he might leave the whole territory of the Franks to his children; and in this purpose he succeeded by treachery and cruelty. In the last year of his reign Clovis had called a council at Orleans, from which are dated the peculiar privileges claimed by the kings of France in opposition to the pope.
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Clyde L Herring was an American politician. He was a Democratic governor of Iowa from 1933 until 1937.
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Clyde M Reed was an American politician. He was a Republican governor of Kansas from 1929 until 1931.
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Clyde R Hoey was an American politician. He was a Democratic governor of North Carolina from 1937 until 1941.
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Clyde Tingley was an American politician. He was a Democratic governor of New Mexico from 1935 until 1939.
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A cobbler is a boot and shoe maker or repairer.
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The Coccelians were a small sect founded by John Cocceius of Bremen in the 17th century. They held the opinion that a visible reign of Christ in the world would occur after a general conversion of the Jews and all other people to the Christian faith.
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Cockney is a term which was originally applied (with regard to people) to the inhabitants of any town, and implied their ignorance of farming and agriculture. During the 17th century its use became limited to the inhabitants of London, and more recently to those born within the sound of the bells of St Mary-le-Bow (Bow bells) in London. The cockney dialect is chiefly characterised by the substitution of f or v for th (e.g. brover for brother), of ah for ou (e.g. rahnd for round) and ou for o (nou for no) and also a tendency to nasalise many vowels. Other peculiarities are substituting a long i for a long a (e.g. lidy for lady) and oi for i (foin for fine) and the dropping or misplacement of the letter h ('e for he) and of pronouncing many words ending in 'ts' as two syllables, as though there were an 'e' between the 't' and the 's'.
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The Cocomas (or Cocamas) are a tribe of South American aboriginal Indians living around the Maranon and Lower Huallaga. They were first discovered by missionaries around 1680, who reported that the
Cocomas were cannibals. Their language is closely related to Tupi, leading to the suggestion that they are a remnant of the Tupinambas.
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Coe I Crawford was an American politician. He was a Republican governor of South Dakota from 1907 until 1909.
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The Coeur d'Alene are an American Indian tribe. During the 19th century they inhabited Idaho and Washington territories. In 1858 a part of the tribe joined in an attack on Colonel Steptoe. They were subsequently defeated by Colonel Wright and became peaceful. In 1867 a reservation was set apart for those in Idaho, and in 1872 a community living in Paradise Valley was removed to land between the Okinokane and Columbia rivers.
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In Roman law, a cognate was a person related through male or female antecedents. In English and Scottish law, persons related on the mother's side only.
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Coke R Stevenson was an American politician. He was a Democratic governor of Texas from 1941 until 1947.
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Cola di Rienzi was an Italian patriot. He was born in Rome in 1313 and died in 1354. He led a popular uprising in 1347, reigned for seven months and then had to flee. He was eventually murdered in 1354.
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Cole Porter was an American composer and song-writer. He was born in 1891 and died in 1964.
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Coleman L Blease was an American politician. He was a Democratic governor of South Carolina from 1911 until 1915.
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Coles Bashford was an American politician. He was a Republican governor of Wisconsin from 1856 until 1858.
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Colgate W Darden Jr was an American politician. He was a Democratic governor of Virginia from 1942 until 1946.
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Colin was King of Scotland from 967 to 971.
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Colin Blythe was an English cricketer. He was born in 1879 and died in 1917. He played for Kent and England as a slow left-arm bowler, taking 2506 wickets in 16 seasons, 100 of them in test matches including 15 in the test match against South Africa at Headingley in 1907. He was killed in action during the Great War, in France in 1917.
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Sir Colin Campbell, Lord Clyde, was a Scottish soldier. He was born in 1792 at Glasgow and died in 1863. His father, John M'Liver, a native of Mull, was as a cabinet-maker, his mother's maiden name was Campbell, and she was the daughter of a small proprietor in Islay. By the assistance of his mother's relations he was educated at the High School of Glasgow, and afterwards at the Military Academy, Gosport.
In 1808 he received an ensign's commission in the 9th Regiment of Foot, having previously changed his name to Campbell, at the suggestion of his maternal uncle, an officer in the army. He served in Spain under Sir John Moore and Wellington, being engaged in the battles of Barossa and Vittoria, and having displayed distinguished gallantry at the siege of San Sebastian, where, as well as at the Bidassoa, he was severely wounded.
In 1819-1825 he was in the West Indies. In 1835 he attained the rank of lieutenant-colonel. In 1842 he was in China in command of the 98th Regiment, and on the termination of the Chinese war took active service in India, where he acquired such reputation in the second Sikh war as to receive the thanks of parliament and the title of KCB. In 1854 he became major-general, with the command of the Highland Brigade in the Crimean war. His services at the battles of Alma and Balaklava, and during the war generally, were conspicuous, so that on the outbreak of the Indian mutiny he was appointed to the chief command there. Landing at Calcutta on the 29th of August, 1857, he relieved Henry Havelock and Outram at Lucknow, and crushed the rebellion entirely before the end of the year. For his services here Sir Colin Campbell received the thanks of both Houses of Parliament, was created a peer with the title of Baron Clyde, and had an income of 2000 pounds a year allotted him. In 1862 he was made field-marshal.
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The Colleries are a Dravidian people of south-east India.
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The Collyridians were Arab heretics of the 4th century who offered collyrides (small cakes) to the Virgin Mary as a goddess.
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In the British Army, a Colonel is the commanding officer of a regiment, or an officer of similar rank on the general staff.
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A colporteur is a hawker of books, usually bibles.
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The Comanche are an American Indian tribe. Originally a roving tribe, they were early engaged in disastrous wars with the Spanish. They were always dangerous and troublesome to the colonists. They were at one time on a Texas reservation, but on being expelled became bitter enemies of the State. The Government later collected a portion on lands in the western part of Indian Territory. A part of these, the Quanhado, refused to settle down until defeated by Colonel McKenzie at McClellan's Creek in 1872.
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With the Romans, the comitia were assemblies of the people in which such public business was transacted as the election of magistrates, the passing of laws, etc. These were of three kinds: (1) The comitia curiata, or assemblies of the patrician houses or populus in wards or curioe. (2) The comitia centuriata, or assemblies of the whole Roman people, including patricians, clients, and plebeians in divisions called centuries. These assemblies are said to have been instituted by King Servius Tullius as a counterpoise to the powers of the comitia curiata. After the institution of the centuriata the functions of the curiata were almost confined to the election of priests, and the confirmation of dignities imposed by the people. The centuriata had the election of consuls, the
deciding on war, the acceptance of rejection of laws, etc. (3) The comitia tributa, or assemblies of the plebeian tribes only. The tributa were instituted not long after the expulsion of the kings, and originally transacted matters pertaining to the plebeians alone, but latterly had wider functions, electing the inferior magistrates, etc.
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A Commissar is an administrative official in Russia. There are various ranks, the highest being in charge of a State department and corresponding to a British cabinet minister.
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A commissionaire was originally a member of a body of public messengers in Britain originally selected from the wounded soldiers of the Crimean and Indian wars. They received their appointment from a society established by Captain Walter in 1859, which was under the patronage of the queen and the commander-in-chief. They were established in most of the great cities, and their charges were regulated by a tariff. In later times the term became to be applied to any unifromed door attendant at a theatre, cinema, hotel etc.
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The Common Serjeant is an ancient law officer of the City of London next in rank to the recorder. He aids the recorder at the Central Criminal Court, acts as judge at the Mayor's Court and legal adviser and counsel to the City Corporation, and performs certain functions at the election of city officers. The post is a Crown nomination.
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Commoner is a term applied in Britain to all citizens except the hereditary nobility.
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Commodus (Aelius Aurelius) was a Roman emperor. The son of Marcus Aurelius, hw was born in 161 and died in 192. He succeeded his father in 180, and soon revealed proof of his cruel and voluptuous character. He used to fight in the circus like a gladiator, and caused himself to be worshipped as Hercules. One of his concubines, whom he intended to put to death, administered poison to him; but it operated too slowly, and he was strangled by a favourite athlete.
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A compere is a host or master of ceremonies at a stage revue or television programme.
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Marc Pierre De Voyer, the Comte D'Argenson, was a French statesman. He was born in 1696 and died in 1764. After holding a number of subordinate offices he became minister for foreign affairs, and succeeded in bringing about the Congress of Breda, which was the prelude to that of Aix-la-Chapelle. He was present at the Battle of Fontenoy, and was exiled to his estate for some years through the machinations of Madame De Pompadour. His Considerations sur le Gouvernement de la France, was a very advanced study on the possibility of combining with a monarchic form of government democratic principles and local self-government. Les Essais, ou Loisirs d'un Ministre d'Etat, published in 1785, is a collection of characters and anecdotes in the style of Montaigne.
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Francois Antoine Comte de Boissy d'Anglas was a French statesman of the revolutionary period. He was born in 1756 and died in 1826. In 1789 he was elected at Annonay to the states-general, and in 1792 to the Convention. He voted against the death of Louis XVI, and after the fall of Robespierre was appointed secretary of the Convention,and intrusted with the provisioning of Paris at a time of famine. He was made a member of the Council of Five Hundred in 1795, president of the Tribunate in 1803, senator and commander of the Legion of Honour in 1805, and a peer by Louis XVIII in 1814. Besides many brochures, be wrote an essay on the life and writings of Malesherbes (1819-21); Etudes Litteraires et Poetiques d'un Vieillard (1825).
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Auguste Charles Joseph Flahaut de la Billarderie (Comte de Flahaut de la Billarderie) was a French general and diplomatist. He was born in 1785 and died in 1870. He had a brilliant career under Napoleon I, but on the return of the Bourbons he left France and lived in exile from 1815 to 1830. He married in England the daughter of Admiral Keith, who became Baroness Keith in 1823. He returned to France in 1830, and was ambassador successively at Berlin, Vienna, and London.
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A conchologist is a collector of shells.
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Concino Concino (Marshal and Marquis D'Ancre) was an Italian statesman. He was born around 1580 in Florence and died in 1617. On the marriage of Marie de Medicis to Henri IV in 1600 he came in her suite to France, where he obtained rapid promotion, more especially after the assassination of the king in 1610. He became successively Governor of Normandy, Marshal of France, and last of all, primeminister. Being thoroughly detested by all classes, at last a conspiracy was formed against him, and he was shot dead on the bridge of the Louvre in 1617.
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In music, a conductor is a musician who directs the performance of a piece of music.
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Condy Raguet was an American statesman. He was born in 1784 at Philadelphia and died in 1843. He was US Consul at Rio Janeiro from 1822 to 1825, and charge d'affaires from 1825 to 1827. He negotiated a treaty with Brazil and was a prominent writer on free trade.
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Conelius Tacitus was a Roman historian. He was born in 55 and died in 120.
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Confucius (Kong Fu-tse) was an ancient Chinese philosopher. He was born around 551 BC at Shantung province and died around 479 BC. His father, Shuh-liang-heih, who was of royal descent, died when Confucius was three years old, and the boy was reared in comparative poverty by his mother, Ching-tsai. At the age of seventeen he was made inspector of corn-markets, at nineteen he married, and after about four years of domesticity, in which a son and two daughters were born him, he commenced his career as a teacher.
In 517 BC he was induced by two members of one of the principal houses in Lu, who had joined his band of disciples, to visit the capital with them, where he had interviews with Lao-tse, the founder of Taoism. Though temporarily driven from Lu to Tsi by a revolution, he soon returned thither with an increasing following, and at the age of fifty-two was made chief magistrate of the city of Chung-too. So striking a reformation was effected by him that he was chosen for higher posts, became minister of crime, and with the aid of two powerful disciples elevated the state of Lu to a leading position in the kingdom. Its marquis, however, soon after gave himself up to debauchery, and Confucius became a wanderer in many states for thirteen years. In 483 he returned to Lu, but would not take office. The deaths of his favourite disciples Yen Hwin and Tse-lu in 481 and 478 did much to further his own, which took place in about 479.
Confucius left no work detailing his moral and social system, but the five canonical books of Confucianism are the Yih-king, the Shu-king, the Sbi-king, the Le-king, and the Ghun-tsien, with which are grouped the 'Four Books', by disciples of Confucius, the Ta-heo or Great Study, the Chung-Yung or Invariable Mean, the Tun-yu or 'Philosophical Dialogues', and the Hi-tse, written by Meng-tse or Mencius. The teaching of Confucius has had, and still has, an immense influence in China. All his teaching was devoted to practical morality and to the duties of man in this world in relation to his fellow-men; in it was summed up the wisdom acquired by his own insight and experience, and that derived from the teaching of the sages of antiquity.
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Connop Thirlwall was an English divine and historian. He was born in 1797 at Stepney and died in 1875. Educated at Charterhouse and at Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1832 he became a tutor at Trinity College but resigned in 1834 over a disagreement regarding religious tests. In 1840 he became bishop of St David's and remained in Wales for 34 years. His history of Greece, written between 1835 and 1847 is a standard work. He was renowned as a liberal and a champion of emancipation.
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Conon was an Athenian general. He commanded the fleet of 413 BC which was intended to prevent the Corinthians from relieving Syracuse during their war with Athens, and after various services, succeeded Alcibiades in 406. When the Athenian fleet was surprised and defeated by the Spartans under Lysander in 405, shortly before the end of the Peloponnesian war, Conon escaped to Cyprus with eight vessels, and afterwards joined the Persians against the Spartans, being appointed to the command of a Persian fleet in 397. In 394, in concert with the Persian commander, Pharnabazus, he defeated the Spartan admiral Pisander off Cnidus, and in 393 he returned to Athens to restore the walls and fortifications, a work in which he employed the crews of his vessels, rousing great enthusiasm among the Athenians, his countrymen. But having been sent by the Athenians to counteract the effects of Spartan diplomacy upon the Persians, he was thrown by the latter into prison, and his subsequent fate is unknown, some believing that he was put to death, others that he escaped and died in Cyprus.
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Conquistadors was the name given to the Spanish conquerors of South America, and in particular to their more important leaders.
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Conrad Aitken was an American poet, writer and critic. He was born in 1889 and died in 1973. He won the Pulitzer prize in 1929 for his work 'Selected Poems'.
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Conrad Baker was an American politician. He was a Republican governor of Indiana from 1867 until 1873.
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Conrad I was King of Germany in 911. He was killed in 918 while fighting the Hungarians. He was chosen by the German princes as their head in 911, on the extinction of the direct Carlovingian line. He had difficulty in establishing his imperial authority over insubordinate vassals, had to contend against the Hungarians.
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Conrad II was King of Germany from 1024 until 1039. He tried to reform the country, repressing some of the more unpleasant aspects of the feudal system.
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Conrad III was King of Germany and emperor of the Romans from 1138 to 1152. He was the founder of the Suabian dynasty of Hohenstaufen. During the struggle with his rival, Henry the Proud, the factions of Guelf and Ghibelline, named from the war-cries of the respective parties, came into existence. Conrad III, persuaded by St Bernard, took part in the second crusade, from 1147 to 1149. His marriage with a Greek princess led to his adoption of the double-headed eagle now appearing on the Austrian arms. He was succeeded by his nephew Frederick Barbarossa.
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Conrad IV was a German King. He was born in 1228 and died in 1254. He was King of the Romans in 1237 and Emperor in 1250. He opposed the Pope and opened war on the Archbishop of Mainz. After a campaign of dubious success he marched into Italy, where he died.
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Consort is the term applied to the spouse of a reigning sovereign.
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A constable was an officer of high rank in several of the mediaeval monarchies. Among the Franks, after the major domus, or mayor of the palace, had become king, the comes stabuli became the first dignitary of the crown, commander-in-chief of the armies, and highest judge in military affairs. The connetable, however, acquired so much power that Louis XIII in 1627 abolished the office entirely. Napoleon re-established it, but it vanished with his downfall.
In England the office of lord high constable was created by William the Conqueror, and became hereditary in two different families, as annexed to the earldom of Hereford. Since the attainder of Stafford, however, in 1521, lord high constables have been appointed only to officiate on special occasions. The office of lord high constable of Scotland, expressly reserved in the treaty of union, is hereditary in the noble family of Erroll.
In the common modern acceptation of the term constables are police officers in towns, counties, etc, having as their duties the repression of felonies, the keeping of the peace, the execution of legal warrants, etc.
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Constance Smedley was a British novelist. After studying at the Birmingham School of Art, she turned to fiction writing, with the 'April Princess' published in 1903 followed by 'Flower Book' published in 1910 and illustrated by her husband Maxwell Armfield. She wrote novels about contemporary life during the start of the 20th century and later founded the Lyceum Club.
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Constans I was ruler of Italy, Africa and West Illyricum. He was born in 320 BC, the son of Constantine the Great (Constantine I), and died in 350.
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Constans II was a Roman Emperor or the East. He was born in 630 and died in 668. His reign was disturbed by frequent and disastrous Arab and Lombard invasions, by which Africa and large parts of Italy and Greece were lost.
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Leonard Constant Lambert was a composer, conductor and author who founded the English ballet. He was born in 1905 and died in 1951.
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Constant Troyon was a French animal painter. He was born in 1810 at Sevres and died in 1865. He started his art career as a painter on china and was influenced by Diaz, Dupre and Huet.
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Caius Flavius Valerius Aubelius Claudius Constantine (Constantine the Great) was a Roman emperor. He was born in 274 and died in 337. The son of the Emperor Constantius Chlorus, when his father was associated in the government by Diocletian, the son was retained at court as a hostage, but after Diocletian and Maximian had laid down the reins of government, Constantine fled to Britain, to his father, to escape from Galerius.
After the death of his father he was chosen emperor by the soldiery, in the year 306, and took possession of the countries which had been subject to his father, namely, Gaul, Spain, and Britain. He more than once defeated the Franks who had obtained a footing in Gaul and drove them across the Rhine: and then directed his arms against Maxentius, who had joined Maximian against him. In the campaign in Italy he saw, it is said, the vision of a flaming cross in the heavens, beneath the sun, bearing the inscription, 'In hoc signo vinces.' Under the standard of the cross, therefore, he vanquished the army of Maxentius under the walls of Rome, and entered the city in triumph.
In 313, together with his son-in-law, the eastern emperor, Licinius, he published the memorable edict of toleration in favour of the Christians, and subsequently declared Christianity the religion of the state. Licinius, becoming jealous of his fame, twice took up arms against him, but was on each occasion defeated, and finally put to death.
Thus in 325 Constantine became the sole head of the Roman Empire. His internal administration was marked by a wise spirit of reform, and by many humane concessions with regard to slaves, accused persons, widows, etc. In 329 he laid the foundation of a new capital of the empire, at Byzantium, which was called after him Constantinople, and soon rivalled Rome herself. In 332 he fought successfully against the Goths, relieved the empire of a disgraceful tribute which his predecessors had paid to these barbarians, and secured his frontier upon the Danube.
In 337 he was taken ill near Nicomedia, was baptized, and died after a reign of thirty-one years, dividing his empire between his three sons, Constantine, Constantius, and Constans. He summoned the celebrated Council of Nicsea in 325 to settle the Arian controversy. He is sometimes regarded as a saint, with the 20th or 21st of May as his festival.
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Constantine I was King of Scotland from 863 to 877.
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Constantine II was King of Scotland from 900 to 943.
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Constantine III was King of Scotland from 995 to 997.
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Constantius was a Roman Emperor. He was born in 250 and died in 306. He was successful as a military ruler of Dalmatia, and was appointed Caesar by the Emperor Maximian in 293. He died at York during a campaign against the Picts.
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Consul was a name originally given to the two highest magistrates in the republic of Rome. After King Tarquinius Superbus had been expelled by the joint efforts of the patricians and plebeians in 509 BC, two consuls (consules) were placed at the head of the senate, the body in whose hands was the administration of the republic. These officers were annually elected, at first only from the patricians; at a later period , from 366 BC, also from the plebeians. In order to be eligible to the consulship, the candidate was to be forty-five years of age, and must have passed through the inferior offices of quaestor, sedile, and praetor, and he was required by law to be in Rome at the time of the election. All these laws, however, were disregarded at various junctures in Roman history.
The insignia of the consuls were a staff of ivory with an eagle at its head, a toga bordered with purple (toga praetexta), which under the emperors was embroidered; an ornamental chair (sella curulis), and twelve lictors, who, with fasces and axes, preceded them. In the beginning of the republic the authority of the consuls was almost as great as that of the preceding kings. They could declare war, conclude peace, make alliances, and even order a citizen to be put to death; but their powers were gradually curtailed, especially by the establishment of the tribunes of the people, early in the 5th century. But they still stood at the head of the whole republic: all officers were under them, the tribunes of the people only excepted: they convoked the senate, proposed what they thought fit, and executed the laws. In times of emergency they received unlimited power, and could even sentence to death without trial, levy troops, and make war without the resolve of the people first obtained. Under the emperors the consular dignity sunk to a shadow, and became merely honorary. The last consul at Rome was Theodorus Paulinus in 536.
In France the name of consul was temporarily adopted for the chief magistrates after the revolution. The directorial government (third constitution) having been abolished by the revolution of the 18th Brumaire, of the year VIII (November the 9th,1799), a provisional consular government, consisting of Bonaparte, Sieyes, and Roger Ducos, established the fourth constitution, proclaimed on December the 15th, by which France was declared a republic under a government of consuls. Three elective consuls (Bonaparte, Cambaceres, Lebrun) had almost uncontrolled executive authority, while the legislative power was in the hands of the tribunate and the legislative assembly: a conservative senate was also elected. But as early as August the 2nd, 1802, Bonaparte was proclaimed First Consul for life, and thus the constitution of France became again practically monarchical. On April the 10th,1804, he was proclaimed emperor, and even the nominal consulate ended.
At present consuls are officials appointed by the government of one country to attend to its commercial interests in another country. The duties of a consul generally speaking are to promote the trade of the country he represents; to give advice and assistance when called upon to his fellow-subjects; to uphold their lawful interests and privileges if any attempt be made to injure them; to transmit reports of trade to his own government, to authenticate certain documents, etc. They are generally of three ranks: consuls-general, consuls, and vice-consuls.
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The contras are a right wing Nicaraguan guerrilla force.
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The Convulsionists or Convulsionaires was the name given to those fanatics of the 18th century in France who had or affected to have convulsions, produced by religious impulses. The name was first applied to fanatics who exhibited varied seizures at the tomb of a Jansenist at St Medard, some jumping, some barking, and others mewing like a cat. A number of them were imprisoned, but this had little effect.
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The Coodies was a name given to small bodies of Federalists who became prominent in New York City in 1812, under the leadership of G. C. Verplanck (known as 'Abimalech Coody'). They opposed DeWitt Clinton and favoured war with England.
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Captain James Cook was an English sailor and explorer. In 1768 he sailed around the world. He discovered Easter Island in 1772.
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Coolie is a name in Hindustan for a day labourer, the name also being extended to those of some other eastern countries. During the Victorian Era many of these were introduced into the West Indies, Mauritius, and other places, their passage being paid for them on their agreeing to serve for a term of years. The first coolie emigrants appear to have been those sent to British Guiana from Calcutta in 1839 to supply the want of labour felt after the abolition of slavery. The use of low-paid, emigrant workers, still a controversial issue today, was also such in the Victorian Era, particularly in Australia and America where low-skilled labourers arriving from India and China were not welcome.
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A Cooper is a person whose trade is cooperage (making barrels etc.).
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Copts is a name given to the Christian descendants of the Ancient Egyptian race, belonging mostly to the Jacobite or Monophysite sect. Reduced by a long course of oppression and misrule to a state of degradation, the number and national character of the Copts greatly declined over the years. Their costume resembles that of the Muslims, but they are very generally in the habit of wearing a black turban for distinction's sake. In various other respects they resemble the Muslim, and they practise circumcision and don't eat pork. The women go out with veiled faces like the Muslim women. Confession is required of all. Fasting holds a prominent place in the life of the Copt, who is, indeed, required to fast (that is, to abstain from all animal food except fish) during the greater part of every year.
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The cordeliers were originally a branch of the order of Franciscan monks who wore as part of their dress a girdle of knotted cords. Afterwards the name was given to a club or society of Jacobins, including Marat, George Danton, and Camille Des-moulins. The club lasted from 1792 to 1794, and took its name from the place of meeting.
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The term cordwainer originally applied to a leather worker, particularly someone who worked with a particularly fine, soft, pliable leather made from goatskin known as cordwain which was used for making shoes in the Spanish town of Cordoba. Later, the term came to mean a shoemaker, though properly a shoemaker who made shoes from cordwain.
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Corinne Bailey Rae is a British singer. She was born in 1979. Raised in Leeds, Yorkshire, she was bought a guitar by a friend at the church she attended who also encouraged her to write songs. In 2001 her debut album entered the charts at the number one position.
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Corinthians is the name for inhabitants of Corinth in Greece. Hence the book in the bible called Corinthians refers to epistles addressed to the inhabitants of the ancient city of Corinth.
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Coriolanus was the name given to an ancient Roman, Caius, or more properly Cneius Marcius, because the city of Corioli, the capital of the kingdom of the Volsci, was taken almost solely by his exertions. He was banished for seeking to deprive the plebeians of their hard-earned privileges, and in particular of the tribuneship; and seeking revenge, he took refuge amongst the Volsci, the bitterest enemies of Rome, and prevailed upon them to go to war with her. The Volscian army, after making itself master of the cities of Latium, was pitched in sight of Rome before troops could be raised for the defence. The Roman senate made unavailing overtures for peace, until at length the tears of Veturia his mother, and Volumnia his wife, when they appeared at the head of the Roman matrons, induced Coriolanus to withdraw his army from before Rome, He was afterwards assassinated in a tumult while attempting to justify his conduct. The story of Coriolanus, which is now regarded as legendary, forms the subject of one of William Shakespeare's plays.
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Cornelia was the daughter of Publius Scipio Africanus, and the wife of Sempronius Gracchus whom she married in 169 BC. She was renowned for her pride in her sons who were reformers.
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Cornelis Bega was a Dutch painter and engraver. He was born in 1620 at Harlem and died in 1664 of the plague. He was one of the ablest pupils of Adrian von Osfcade. His best paintings are in the Berlin Museum, and the Pinakothek at Munich.
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Cornelius C Felton was an American academic. He was born in 1807 and died in 1862. He was appointed Greek professor at Harvard in 1834, was president of Harvard from 1860 until 1862, and was the author of many classical works.
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Cornelius Harnett was an American politician. He was born in 1723 and died in 1781. He was prominent in the North Carolina Provincial Assembly from 1770 to 1771, aided in drafting a State Constitution in the Provincial Congress at Halifax in 1776 and served in Congress from 1777 to 1780.
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Cornelius Nepos was a Roman historian. He was probably the author of Vitae excellentium imperatorum, and of the lives of Atticus and Cato.
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Cornelius P Comegys was an American politician. He was a Whig governor of Delaware from 1837 until 1841.
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Cornelius P Van Ness was an American politician. He was a Democratic- Republican governor of Vermont from 1823 until 1826.
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Cornelius van Tromp was a Dutch sailor. He was born in 1629 at Amsterdam and died in 1691. He commanded a ship in the expedition to Morocco in 1650 and served against the English in the Mediterranean from 1652 to 1653. In 1665 he was defeated at Southwold and in 1666 was deprived of his commission. In 1673 his commission was returned and he took part in the battle of Schooneveld. He had been given command of the expedition against France when he died in 1691.
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Cornelius Vanderbilt (Commodore Vanderbilt) was an American capitalist. He was born in 1794 and died in 1877. The son of a small farmer he began in business at the age of sixteen by ferrying passengers and goods between New York and Staten Island. In 1851 he established a steamship line between New York and California via Nicaragua. In 1855 he established a line between New York and Havre. In 1857 he turned his attention to railways, and became one of the foremost 'railroad kings' in America. In 1867 becoming president of the New York Central Railway. He founded Vanderbilt University at Nashville, Tennessee.
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Cornstalk was an American Indian chief who led a clever and spirited attack upon General Lewis at Point Pleasant, near the mouth of the Great Kanawha in 1774. Each side lost about seventy-five killed and one hundred and forty wounded.
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A Coroner is a person who is appointed to enquire into the death of somebody who has died, or is thought to have died from unnatural causes.
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Correggio was the name taken by Antonio Allegri from his birthplace near Modena. He was an Italian painter and was born in 1494 at Corregio and died in 1534. Little is known of his life, which was very retired. Almost the only anecdote told of him is that on seeing the St Cecilia of Raphael he exclaimed 'Anch 'io son pittore' (I also am a painter), but thia is doubtful. Correggio is unrivalled in chiaroscuro and in the grace and rounding of his figures. Among his best pictures are Night, in which the chief light is the glory beaming from the infant Saviour; the St Jerome; the Marriage of St Catherine; several Madonnas, one of them (called La Zingarella, or the Gipsy Girl) said to represent his wife; the Penitent Magdalene; the altar-pieces of St Francis, St George, and St Sebastian; Christ in the Garden of Olives; the fresco of the Ascension in the Church of St John, Parma; the Assumption of the Virgin in the cathedral of the same city; the Ecce Homo, and Cupid, Mercury, and Venus, both in the National Gallery, London.
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The Corsairs were mediaeval pirates, whose particular base was the north coast of Africa, from which they plundered all Christian ships, especially the Spanish treasure ships from America.
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The Corybantes were the Greek priests of Cybele. They celebrated her festival with wild orgies, beating upon drums and cymbals.
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Cosimo de Medici was an Italian politician and banker. He was born in 1389 and died in 1464. He is generally regarded as the model for Machiavelli's The Prince. He dominated the government of Florence from 1434 and was a patron of the arts. He was succeeded by his inept son Piero de Medici.
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Cosimo Rosselli was an Italian painter. He was born in 1439 at Florence and died in 1507. Among his chief works are frescos in the chapels in Florence and the surrounding areas.
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Cosmas was an Alexandrian merchant and traveller of the 6th century and afterwards a monk. He wrote several geographical and theological works, the most important of which extant is the Christian Topography. The author tried to prove that the earth is a parallelogram bounded by walls, which meet and form the vaulted roof which we call the sky.
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Originally the name Cossack was applied to any armed adventurer, later the name was applied to tribes who inhabited the southern and eastern parts of Russia, paying no taxes, but performing instead the duty of soldiers.
Nearly all of the Cossacks belonged to the Graeco - Russian Church, to which they were strongly attached, and to the observances of which they were particularly attentive. They were divided into two principal classes, both on account of their descent and their condition - the Cossacks of Little Russia and those of the Don. Both classes, and especially those of the Don, had collateral branches, distributed as Cossacks of the Azoff, of the Danube, of the Black Sea, of the Caucasus, of the Ural, of Orenberg, of Siberia, of the Chinese frontiers, and of Astrakhan.
Writers were not agreed as to the origin of this people and of their name, but they are believed to be a mixed Caucasian and Tartar race. In personal appearance the Cossacks bore a close resemblance to the Russians, but were of a more slender make, and had features which were decidedly more handsome and expressive.
Originally their government formed a kind of democracy, at the head of which was a chief or hetman of their own choice; while under him was a long series of officers with jurisdictions of greater or less extent, partly civil and partly military, all so arranged as to be able on any emergency to furnish the largest military array on the shortest notice. The democratical part of the constitution gradually disappeared under Russian domination. The title of chief hetman was later vested in the heir-apparent to the throne, and all the subordinate hetmans and other officers were appointed by the crown.
Each Cossack was liable to military service from the age of eighteen to thirty-eight, and had to furnish his own horse. They supplied the Russian empire with one of the most valuable elements in its national army, forming a first-rate irregular cavalry, and rendering excellent service as scouts and skirmishers. In 1570 they built their principal 'stanitza' and rendezvous, called Tcherkask, on the Don, not far above its mouth. As it was rendered unhealthy by the overflowing of the island on which it stood, New Tcherkask was founded in 1805 some miles from the old city, to which nearly all the inhabitants removed. This formed the capital of the country of the Don Cossacks, which constituted a government of Russia, and had an area of 61,900 square miles and a population of some 2.5 million in 1905.
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Originally a costermonger was a seller of apples, the term came to mean a seller of fruit and vegetables and later any eatables traded around the streets.
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Cotton Mather was an American religious fundamentalist. He was born in 1663 and died in 1728. Eduated at Harvard, he graduated before he was sixteen years old. He was active in urging on the witchcraft persecutions. He wrote much against intemperance, and in every way aimed at being useful to society, but was exceedingly meddlesome, pedantic and conceited. He was probably the most learned man in America at the time in which he lived, having a wide acquaintance with books and foreign languages. His works number 382. The chief is his 'Magnalia Christ! Americana', a
church history of New England, published in 1702.
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Count appears to have been first used, as a title of dignity, in the reign of the Roman emperor Constantine during the 4th century, meaning originally the companion of a prince or high dignitary. After the fall of the Roman power the title was retained; and under Charlemagne it denoted equally a military or civil employment. About the end of the 15th century, in Germany, and under the last princes of the Merovingian race in France, the title appears to have become hereditary in certain families. The German title Graf corresponds to the title Count in other countries of Europe. In modern, times the custom of styling all the sons of a count also counts makes this designation on the Continent very common, and the rank little more than nominal. In point of rank, the English earls are considered as corresponding to the continental counts, an earl's wife being styled a countess.
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Count Alesandro Cagliostro (real name Giuseppe Balsamo) was an Italian con-man. He was born in 1743 at Palermo and died in 1796. He was the son of poor parents, and entered the order of the Brothers of Mercy, where he acquired a knowledge of the elements of chemistry and physics. He left, or had to leave the order, and committed so many crimes in Palermo that he was obliged to abscond. He subsequently formed a connection with Lorenza Feliciani, whose beauty, ability, and want of principle made her a valuable accomplice in his frauds. With her he travelled through many countries, assuming other names besides that of Count Cagliostro, pretending to have supernatural powers, and wringing considerable sums from those who became his dupes. In England he established an order of what he called Egyptian Masonry, in which, as grand kophta, he pretended to foretell the future, and made many dupes among the higher classes.
In Paris he was implicated in the affair of the diamond necklace, which caused so great a scandal in the reign of Louis XVI, and was imprisoned in the Bastile, but escaped by means of his matchless impudence. He afterwards visited England, but met with little success. In 1789 he revisited Rome where he busied himself about freemasonry;
but being discovered, and committed to the Castle of St Angelo, he was condemned by a decree of the pope to imprisonment for life as a freemason, an arch-heretic, and a very dangerous foe to religion. He died in prison in 1795.
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Count Alois von Aehrenthal was an Austro-Hungarian statesman. He was born in 1854 at Grooskal, Bohemia and died in 1912. Educated at Prague and Bonn, in 1877 he entered the diplomatic service as attache at Paris. He was at St Petersburg as attache from 1878 until 1883 and as councillor of legation from 1888 until 1894 and as ambassador from 1899 until 1906. From 1895 until 1899 he was envoy extraordinary at Bucharest. In 1906 he succeeded Count Goluchowski as foreign minister and in 1908 shocked Europe by his annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina.
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Charles Louis Auguste Fouquet, Count de Belleisle, was Marshal of France. He was born in 1684 and died in 1761. He distinguished himself during the war of the Spanish succession, and afterwards in Spain and Germany, where, under the Duke of Berwick, he took Treves and Trarbach, and had a distinguished share in the siege of Phillipsburg. The cession of Lorraine to France was principally his work. He was created marshal of France about 1740; commanded in Germany against the Imperialists, took Prague by assault; but the King of Prussia having made a separate peace, he was compelled to retreat, which he performed with admirable skill. In 1744 he was taken prisoner by the English, but was soon exchanged. In 1748 he was made a duke and peer of France, and the department of war was committed to his charge.
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Count Donop was a German mercenary. He was born in 1740 and died in 1777. He was commander of the Hessians in the American War of Independence and was mortally wounded in an attempt to take by assault Fort Mercer, near Red Bank, New Jersey on October the 22nd 177 7.
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Count Maurice Maeterlinck was a Belgian writer and dramatist. He was born in 1862 at Ghent and died in 1949.
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John Tzerclaes, the Count of Tilly, was a German soldier. He was born in 1559 at Tilly in Brabant and died in 1632. He served with distinction under Parma in the Netherlands, and against the Turks in Hungary. In 1610 he entered the service of Maximilian of Bavaria, head of the Catholic League, whose army he commanded in 1620. rejoining the Imperial service, he was made commander-in-chief on the outbreak of the Thirty Years' War and his victory at the White Mountain in 1621 was the first decisive blow struck in the war. He was mortally wounded at the passage of Lech on April the 15th 1632, and died on April the 30th.
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In England, a Count Palatine was formerly the superior of a county, who exercised regal prerogatives within his county, in virtue of which he had his own courts of law, appointed judges and law officers, and could pardon murders, treasons, and felonies. All writs and judicial processes proceeded in his name, while the king's writs were of no avail within the palatinate. The Earl of Chester, the Bishop of Durham, and the Duke of Lancaster were the Counts Palatine of England, the corresponding counties being called counties palatine.
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A countess is the wife or widow of an earl or a count, or a woman holding the rank of earl or count in her own right.
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The Countess D'Aunoy was a French writer. She was born in 1650 and died in 1705. She was the author of Contes des Fees (Fairy Tales), many of which, such as The White Cat, The Yellow Dwarf, etc, have been translated into English. She also wrote a number of novels, historical memoirs, etc.
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Ida Friedrich, countess of Hahn-Hahn was a German writer. She was born in 1805 and died in 1880. The daughter of Count Karl Friedrich of Hahn-Hahn, who squandered most of his means as an entrepreneur of dramatic companies, in 1826 she married a wealthy cousin, but three years later was divorced, after which she travelled extensively in Italy, Spain, and the Levant. In 1835 she made her debut in literature with Poems, followed by Venetian Nights (1836), Songs and Poems (1837). But her popularity is chiefly founded on her novels, especially those of social life, amongst which Aus der Gesellschaft (1838), Grafin Faustine (1841), Sigismund Forster (1843), may be mentioned.
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Selina, Countess of Huntingdon was a British divine. She was born in 1707 and died in 1791. In 1728 she married the Earl of Huntingdon, and became a widow in 1746, and, adopting the principles of the Methodists, was long considered, owing to her rank and fortune, as the head of the Calvinistic Methodists. She founded a college at Treveccain Wales, for the education of ministers, built numerous chapels, and contributed liberally to the support of the clergy.
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In Scottish history, Covenanters is the name given to the party which struggled for religious liberty from 1637 on to the revolution; but more especially applied to the insurgents who, after the passing of the act of 1662 denouncing the Solemn League and Covenant as a seditious oath, took up arms in defence of the Presbyterian form of church government. The Presbyterian ministers who refused to acknowledge the bishops were ejected from their parishes and gathered round them crowds of their people on the hillsides, or any lonely spot, to attend their ministrations. These meetings, called 'conventicles,' were denounced as seditious, and to frequent them or to hold communication with those frequenting them was forbidden on pain of death. The unwarrantable severity with which the recusants were treated provoked them to take up arms in defence of their opinions. The first outbreaks took place in the hill country on the borders of Ayr and Lanarkshire. Here at Drumclog, a farm near London Hill, a conventicle was attacked by a body of dragoons under Graham of Claverhouse, but were successful in defeating their assailants in 1679. The murder of Archbishop Sharp on Magus Moor, and this defeat, alarmed the government, who sent a large body of troops under the command of the Duke of Monmouth to put down the insurgents, who had increased in number rapidly. The two armies met at Bothwell Bridge, where the Covenanters were totally defeated on June the 22nd, 1679.
In consequence of the rebellious protest called the Sanquhar Declaration, put forth in 1680 by Cameron, Cargill, and others, as representing the more irreconcilable of the Covenanters (known as Cameronians), and a subsequent proclamation in 1684, the government proceeded to more severe measures. An oath was now required of all who would free themselves of suspicion of complicity with the Covenanters; and the dragoons who were sent out to hunt down the rebels were empowered to kill anyone who refused to take the oath. During this 'killing time', as it was called, the sufferings of the Covenanters were extreme; but notwithstanding the great numbers who were put to death, their fanatic spirit seemed only to grow stronger. Even after the accession of William some of the extreme Covenanters refused to acknowledge him owing to his acceptance of Episcopacy in England, and formed the earliest dissenting sect in Scotland.
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Coventry Kersey Dighton Patmore was an English poet. He was born in 1823 at Woodford, Essex and died in 1896.
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Cowper Phipps Coles was an English naval captain. He was born in 1819 and died in 1870. He served in the Agamemnon in the attack on Sebastopol in 1854. He invented a gun raft and designed the Captain which turned turtle and sank with him and others off Cape Finisterre in 1870.
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Cratinus was an Athenian comic poet to whom the invention of satirical comedy is attributed. He was born in 519 BC and died in 422 BC. Some fragments of his works remain.
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Crazy Horse was a Sioux Indian chief. The brother-in-law of Red Cloud, with Sitting Bull he destroyed General George Custer's force at the Battle of Little Bighorn in 1876, but surrendered to General Cook in 1877.
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The Creek Indians (Muskogee) are an aboriginal North American people of the Muskogean family who originally lived on the Flint, Chattahoochee, Coosa and Alabama Rivers and in the peninsular of Florida. The Muskogee were called the Creeks by the British in allusion to their villages being located close to rivers and creeks. They were farmers planting maize, beans, millet, tobacco and sunflowers, hunters who hunted deer and bison in the west, and gatherers who collected and stored nuts and wild fruits. The Creek Indians lived in settlements comprising a main town surrounded by small villages. The main town contained a 'square' where public and religious gatherings were held. The houses were originally built of logs with mud or thatched roofs, later the styles of frontier home built by the Europeans were adopted.
During the 17th century attacks by Europeans had decimated many of the coastal dwelling Creek people, but it was not until the overthrow of the French that they came completely under English influence. During the American War of Independence the Creeks joined the British, assisting in an attack on Wayne's army in 1782. In 1790 they made a friendly treaty, but renewed hostilities in 1792. Another treaty was made in 1796 and in 1802 and 1805 they began to cede lands. Joining the English in the American War of 1812, they attacked Fort Mimms on August the 30th 1813 and massacred 400 people. The Creek Indians suffered repeated defeats, and were completely overthrown by General Jackson at Horseshoe Bend on March the 27th 1814. A peace treaty followed in which the Creeks surrendered large tracts of land. Early in the 19th century a part of the Creeks removed to Louisiana and later to Texas. A treaty was made on 1825 by William McIntosh, a mixed blood Creek of a Scottish father and Creek mother ceding more lands which resulted in his murder for 'selling the graves of the ancestors' and the treaty was repudiated. The Creek nation then divided, one party favouring emigration, the other opposing it. In 1836 a part aided the US Government against the Seminole Indians, but the remainder attacked the frontier towns of Georgia and Alabama. General Scott killed large numbers of the Creek Indians and the survivors were removed to a reservation between the Arkansas and the Canadian. The American Civil War again divided the tribe, those supporting the Union being defeated by those supporting the Confederacy. In 1866 the Creek lands were further reduced with a large tract being ceded to the US Government.
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The Crees are a North American Indian tribe of Algonquin stock and speech. They were divided into the Thickwood or Swampy Crees inhabiting the region between Hudson Bay and Lake Winnipeg; and the Plain or Prairie Crees who occupied the open country towards the Rocky Mountains. Traditionally they were at war with the Blackfoot Indians, but with the coming of the Europeans became fur traders trading furs with the Hudson Bay Company.
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Creighton Williams Abrams Jr was an American soldier. He was born in 1914 and died in 1974. He was commander of the American forces in Vietnam from 1968 to 1972, and army chief of staff from 1972 to 1974.
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Creole describes persons not of an aboriginal race born in the West Indies, parts of America, South America and other Spanish or French colonies. Creole does not imply mixed blood, but rather any person born in a place where his race is not indigenous.
The term creole was originally given to all the descendants of Spaniards born in America and the West Indies. It | 
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