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S S Marble was an American politician. He was a Republican governor of Maine from 1887 until 1889.
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S V Stewart was an American politician. He was a Democratic governor of Montana from 1913 until 1921.
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S W T Lanham was an American politician. He was a Democratic governor of Texas from 1903 until 1907.
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The Saami (Lapp) are a group of herding people living in north Scandinavia and the Kola Peninsula, and numbering about 46,000. Some are nomadic, others lead a more settled way of life. They live by herding reindeer, hunting, fishing, and producing handicrafts. Their language belongs to the Finno- Ugric family. Their religion is basically animist, but incorporates elements of Christianity.
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The Sabaeans were a South Arabian people who attained a position of great wealth and importance as the commercial intermediaries between the East and the Mediterranean lands. They were especially flourishing from the 11th to the 1st century BC; and as early as 1000 BC. They had numerous colonies on the African mainland, and laid the foundations of the Ethiopian empire. Around the 8th century BC they were tributary to Assyria, and around the period of the foundation of the Roman empire they became subordinate to, though allied with the Himyarites; and from the 2nd to the 7th century AD they were subject to Abyssinia.
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Sabine Baring-Gould was an English author or numerous hymns and novels. He was born in 1834 at Exeter and died in 1924. Educated at Cambridge, he held several livings in the English Church, being one time rector of Lew Trenchard, Devon. He wrote with success on theological and miscellaneous subjects, and latterly distinguished himself as a novelist. Among his works are: Iceland, its Scenes and Sagas; Curious Myths of the Middle Ages; the Origin and Development of Religious Belief; Lives of the Saints (in 15 volumes); Village Sermons; The Vicar of Morwenstowe (an account of the Reverend Robert Hawker); The Mystery of Suffering, etc; besides the novels Mehalah, John Herring, Richard Cable, The Gave-rocks, Court Royal, etc; and short stories or novelettes.
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The Sabines were an ancient people of central Italy. They had their daughters taken away by the Romans under Romulus, and were finally defeated by Manius Curius Dentatus in 290 BC.
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The sacs or Sauks were a North American Indian tribe forming a branch of the Algonquin family. They were originally based on the upper St Lawrence. They were driven beyond Lake Michigan by the Iroquois and settled near Green Bay, where they subsequently joined with the Foxes. They aided Pontiac, and during the American Revolution supported the English. In 1812, the Rock River Sacs aided Great Britain. In 1804 and 1816 they ceded lands. Their later history is that of the Foxes.
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Saddam Hussein At-Tikriti was an Iraqi socialist politician. He was born in 1937 at Tikrit and died in 2006. In 1957 he joined the Ba'th Socialist party. He entered the Iraqi parliament when the Ba'thists took control in a coup in 1968 and in 1972 was responsible for the nationalisation of Iraq's oil industry. In 1979 he became President of Iraq, a position he held until Iraq was invaded by the USA supported by Britain in 2003. Following the American-led invasion he was arrested, put through a show trial and executed.
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In Yorkshire it was customary for criminals condemned to execution to stop at a certain tavern in York for a last drink, or 'parting draught'. One such felon, the Saddler of Bawtry refused the offer of a drink and was subsequently hanged, his reprieve arriving a few minutes too late. Had he stopped at the tavern and accepted his last drink, his reprieve would have reached him and his life would have been saved.
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Saint Genevieve is the patron saint of Paris. She was born in 423 at Nanterre, about 5 miles from Paris died about the beginning of the 6th century. She devoted herself while still a child to the conventual life. Her prayers and fastings are credited with having saved Paris from the threatened destruction by Attila in 451. Many legends are told respecting her, and several churches have been dedicated to her. Her festival is held on the 3rd of January.
Saint Genevieve (by birth the Duchess of Brabant) was the wife of Siegfried, count palatine in the reign of Charles Martel about 750. According to the legend, which is the subject of several tales and dramas, she was accused of adultery during her husband's absence and condemned to death;
but was allowed to escape, and she lived six years in a cave upon nothing but herbs. She was finally found, and carried home by her husband, who in the meantime had become convinced of her innocence.
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Camille Saint-Saens was a French composer. He was born in 1835 in Paris and died in 1921.
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Saivas are worshippers of Siva; one of the two great sections of the Hindus. They are distinguished from the Vaishnavas by the marks on their foreheads - three horizontal white or grey lines.
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Sir Saiyid Ahmad was an Indian educational reformer. He was born in 1817 at Delhi and died in 1898. His family, of Muslim Afghan origin, had held office in Delhi under the Moguls, and he was the leader of the Muslims in India, using his influence to promote understanding between the British and the Muslims, even encouraging his Muslims to study English and advocating a modernized educational system.
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The Sakai are an aboriginal people of the Malay peninsular.
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The Saktas are a sect of Hindus who worship the yoni, or female principle, according to the Tantras. They are divided into two classes - the Dakshina Chari, or right-hand worshippers; and the Vama Chari or left-hand worshippers. The Saktas hold that the great aim of life is the extinction of desire, which they aim for through exhaustion or gratification, which includes orgies at which the Sakti, or female vigour, is personated by a naked virgin.
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Saladin was sultan of Egypt and Syria. He was born in 1137 and died in 1193. He conquered Jerusalem in 1187 and caused the 3rd crusade to take place.
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The Saladoids were the first inhabitants of Statia arriving in great sea- going canoes from South America before the end of the 15th century.
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Sir Salar Jung was an Indian statesman. He was born in 1829 and died in 1883. Of a family famous under the Moguls, he succeeded his uncle as prime minister under the nizam in 1853. He reorganised the Arab mercenaries and used them to suppress robbers and lawless nobles; he then went on to organise a police force, establish courts of justice, and improve education and agriculture. His loyalty to the British during the mutiny was invaluable in the Deccan.
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The Salish (nicknamed 'Flatheads') are a North American Indian tribe of the Salishan family found in British Columbia, Washington, Idaho, Montana and Oregon. The Salish are a tribe of plateau Indians, typical of inland hunting Indians. Upon contact with Europeans they engaged in fur trading and relations were generally friendly. They were visited by Roman Catholic missionaries during the 1840's and signed a treaty with the USA in 1955 which assigned them a reservation around Flathead Lake in Montana.
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Sallust was a Roman historian. He was born in 86BC and died in 35BC.
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Salmon Portland Chase was an American statesman and jurist. He was born in 1808 at New Hampshire and died in 1873. Having adopted the law as his profession he settled at Cincinnati and acquired a practice there. He early showed himself an opponent of slavery, and was the means of founding the Free-soil party, which in time gave rise to the great Republican party - the power that brought the downfall of slavery. In 1849 to 1855 he was a member of the US Senate, in which he vigorously opposed the extension of slavery into the new territories. In 1855 he was elected governor of Ohio, being re-elected in 1857. In 1860 he was an unsuccessful candidate for the presidency. In 1861 he was nominated secretary of the treasury, and in this post was signally successful in providing funds for carrying on the American Civil War. In 1864 he resigned office, and was appointed chief-justice of the supreme courts.
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Salmon Portland Chase was an American politician. He was born in 1808 at Cornish, New Hampshire and died in 1873. After graduating from Dartmouth college in 1826 he studied law and after becoming first a school teacher was admitted to the bar in 1829. He became involved with a political anti-slavery movement, was one of the leaders of the Liberty party and of the later Free-Soil party and acted as legal counsel for fugitive slaves. He was a Republican governor of Ohio from 1856 until 1860, and also a US senator, secretary of the treasury and chief justice of the United States.
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Salomon August Andree was a Swedish balloonist. He was born in 1854 at Grenna and died in 1897. In 1897 he left Danes Island, Spitsbergen on an expedition to reach the North Pole by balloon with two companions, and was never seen again.
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Salomon Gessner was a German poet and artist. He was born in 1730 at Zurich and died in 1788. In 1749 he was sent by his father to learn the business of bookselling at Berlin, but having taken a dislike to the business he maintained himself by executing landscapes. On his return to Zurich he published Daphnis, a small volume of idylls, and Tod Abels (The Death of Abel), a kind of pastoral idyll in prose. These idylls acquired for him a great reputation amongst contemporaries. For some years afterwards he devoted himself to the engraving art, in which he also became very eminent.
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Salvador Allende was a radical Chilean Marxist democrat leader who became president in 1970, but was killed in a military coup in 1973.
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Salvador Dali is a Spanish painter. He was born in 1904. He is a surrealist painter.
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Salvator Rosa was an Italian painter, etcher and poet. He was born in 1615 at Arenella and died in 1673. He studied at Naples under Ribera and went to Rome in 1634 where he became popular. He left Rome for Florence in 1643 and stayed there until he returned to Rome in 1652, staying in Rome until his death.
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Sam A Baker was an American politician. He was a Republican governor of Missouri from 1925 until 1929.
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Sam C Ford was an American politician. He was a Republican governor of Montana from 1941 until 1949.
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Sam H Jones was an American politician. He was a Democratic governor of Louisiana from 1940 until 1944.
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Sam Houston was an American soldier and politician. He was born in 1793 near Lexington, Virginia and died in 1863. He was a Democratic-Republican governor of Tennessee from 1827 until 1829 and a life-long supporter of the cause of the Cherokee Indians with whom he lived when young.
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The Samaghirs are a division of the Tunguses people, living about the northern affluents of the Amur River.
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The Samaritans were a people settled in Samaria by the Assyrian Kings to replace the indigenous population which had been captured by Sargon.
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The Samburu are a pastoral people of mixed Hamitic stock inhabiting northern Kenya.
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Samoset was a chief of the Pemaquid Indians in Maine. He was born about 1590. He learned English from the colonists of Monhegan Island, sent out by Sir Ferdinando Gorges. Soon after the landing of the Pilgrims he entered Plymouth, saying, 'Welcome, Englishmen'. He brought Squantoy who had visited England, to act as interpreter, and manifested a friendly interest toward the colonists.
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The Samoyedes are a Mongolian race of Ural-Altaic stock, inhabiting the tundras of north east Europe and Siberia. They are nomadic, dwelling in tents or huts and hunting and fishing. They were described in 1588 by Giles Fletcher as eaters of raw flesh, black haired and beardless, men and women alike wearing shirts, breeches and boots made of seal-skin.
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Samuel Adams was an American politician. He was born in 1722 at Boston, Massachusetts and died in 1803. A second cousin to John Adams, the second President of the USA, Samuel Adams was educated at Harvard and briefly studied law. After failing in business and as a tax collector, he became politically involved in Massachusetts, campaigning against taxation from Britain and played a role instigating the Stamp Act riots in Boston. A later signatory of the Declaration of Independence, he was lieutenant governor of Massachusetts from 1789 to 1794 and governor from 1794 until 1797.
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Samuel Austin Allibone was an American author. He was born in 1816 and died in 1889. He compiled a most useful Critical Dictionary of English Literature and British and American Authors published in three volumes in 1859, 1870 and 1871.
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Sir Samuel Argall was a British adventurer. He was born in 1572 and died in 1639. He went to Virginia in 1609 and in 1612 was responsible for the abduction of Pocahontas. In 1613 he commanded an expedition which destroyed Port Royal, Acadia. From 1617 to 1619 he was deputy-governor of Virginia, but was so cruel and evil he was recalled to England.
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Samuel Armstrong was an American politician. He was a Whig governor of Massachusetts from 1835 until 1836. Samuel Chapman Armstrong was an American soldier and educator. He was born in 1839 at Hawaii and died in 1893. He was educated at Oahu College and Williams College. In 1862, after the outbreak of the American Civil war, he joined the Union army. In 1864 he was commissioned colonel of a black regiment, which he commanded for two years. In 1866 he was promoted to the rank of brigadier general. In Hampton and in 1868 he founded, for the education of blacks, the Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute, now Hampton Institute, and served as its president until his death.
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Samuel Ashe was an American politician. He was a Democratic-Republican governor of North Carolina from 1795 until 1798.
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Samuel B Maxey was an American politician. He was born in 1825 and died in 1895. He served during the Mexican War, and was made major-general in the Confederate service. He represented Texas in the US Senate as a Democrat, from 1875 to 1887
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Samuel B Moore was an American politician. He was a Democratic governor of Alabama during 1831.
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Samuel Bagster was an English publisher. He was born in 1772 and died in 1851. He was a founder of the firm of Bagster & Sons, celebrated for their bibles. He began business as a London bookseller in 1794, and soon turned his attention to the publication of bibles, bringing out a Hebrew bible, the Septuagint (Greek) version, and the English version, with 60,000 parallel references, followed by his great polyglot bible, which in its final form showed eight languages at the opening of the volume. Separate versions in different languages were also brought out, with various other aids to the study of Scripture; a polyglot Book of Common Prayer, in eight languages; etc.
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Si Samuel White Baker was an English traveller. He was born in 1821 and died in 1893. He resided some years in Sri Lanka; in 1861 began his African travels, which lasted several years, in the Upper Nile regions, and resulted, among other discoveries, in that of Albert Nyanza lake in 1864, and of the exit of the White Nile from it. In Africa he encountered Speke and Grant after their discovery of the Victoria Nyanza. On his return home he was received with great honour and was knighted. In 1869 he returned to Africa as head of an expedition sent by the Khedive of Egypt to annex and open up to trade a large part of the newly explored country, being raised to the dignity of pasha. He returned in 1873, having finished his work, and was succeeded by the celebrated Gordon. Since then he travelled much. His writings include: The Rifle and the Hound in Ceylon ; Eight Years' Wanderings in Ceylon; The Albert Nyanza, etc; The Nile Tributaries of Abyssinia; Ismailia: a Narrative of the Expedition to Central Africa; Cyprus as I saw it in 1879; also, Cast up by the Sea, a story published in 1869.
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Samuel Bamford was an English social reformer and poet. He was born in 1788 at Middleton in Lancashire and died in 1872. A weaver, he championed the cause for an improvement in the working conditions for the working class, a cause that led to him being arrested and imprisoned.
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Samuel Barber was an American composer. He was born in 1910 at West Chester and died in 1981. He trained at the Curtis Institute of Music, Philadelphia. One of the best-known American composers of the neo-romantic school, he received the Prix de Rome in 1935, Pulitzer Travelling Scholarships in music in 1935 and 1936, a Guggenheim Fellowship in 1945, and the Pulitzer Prize for music in 1958 and 1963. Among his compositions for orchestra are the overture to The School for Scandal written in 1933, Adagio for Strings written in 1936, and two symphonies written in 1936 and 1944; concertos for violin written in 1940, cello written in 1945, and piano written in 1962; and the ballets Medea written in 1946. He also composed works for chorus, chamber ensemble, and piano, and he is noted for his songs. His first opera, Vanessa written in 1958, has been recorded. His second opera, Anthony and Cleopatra written in 1966, was commissioned for the opening performance at the new Metropolitan Opera House in New York City.
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Samuel Augustus Barnett was a British Socialist, social reformer and churchman. He was born in 1844 at Bristol and died in 1913. Educated at Wadham College, Oxford, he was for five years curate of St Mary's, Bryanston Square assisting Octavia Hill in her philanthropic work. From 1872 until 1894 he was vicar of St Jude's, Whitechapel and in 1893 was appointed canon of Bristol, in 1906 canon of Westminster and in 1913 sub-dean of Westminster. Samuel Barnett was concerned with the poor-law, housing and educational reform, he was a virtual founder of Toynbee Hall, the first university settlement of which he was warden from 1884 until 1906, and president until his death. He originated the Children's Country Holiday Fund formulated in 1902. He co-wrote the 1888 book 'Practicable Socialism' and other titles on social reform.
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Samuel Barrington was a British admiral who gained distinction during the Seven Years War. He was born in 1729 and died in 1800. He entered the navy at the age of ten and served under Hawke in the Basque Roads, 1757, and under Rodney at Havre-de-Grace, 1759, and with Keppel at Belle Isle in 1761. As commander-in-chief of the West Indies station he took part in the capture of St Lucia in 1778 and the action off Grenada. In 1787 he was made an admiral.
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Samuel Bell was an American politician. He was a Democratic-Republican governor of New Hampshire from 1819 until 1823.
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Samuel Bigger was an American politician. He was a Whig governor of Indiana from 1840 until 1843.
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Samuel Birch was an English orientalist. He was born in 1813 at London and died in 1885. He entered the British Museum as assistant-keeper of antiquities in 1836, and ultimately became keeper of the Egyptian and Assyrian antiquities. He was specially famed for his capacity and skill in Egyptology, and was associated with Baron Bunsen in his work on Egypt, contributing the philological portions relating to hieroglyphics. His principal works, besides numerous contributions to the transactions of learned societies, to encyclopaedias, etc, include Gallery of Antiquities, 1842; Catalogue of Greek Vases, 1851; Introduction to the Study of Hieroglyphics, 1857; Ancient Pottery, 1858; Egypt from the Earliest Times, 1875. He edited Records of the Past, from 1873 intil 1880. He had the LLD degree from St Andrews and Cambridge, DGL from Oxford, besides many foreign academical distinctions.
Samuel John Lamorna Birch was an English landscape painter. He was born in 1869 and died in 1955.
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Samuel Bochart was a French theologian and Oriental scholar. He was born in 1599 at Rouen and died in 1667 at Caen where he was the Protestant clergyman. His chief works are his Geographia Sacra (1646), and his Hierozoicon, or treatise on the animals of the Bible (1663).
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Samuel Bough was an English painter. He was born in 1822 near Carlisle and died in 1878. He was a self-taught painter, first of theatrical scenery at Manchester and Glasgow, before proceeding to landscapes, mainly in water- colours.
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Samuel Butler was a British satirist and poet. He was born in 1612 and died in 1680. He was educated at Worcester free-school, and held various situations as clerk or amanuensis to persons of position, among them being Sir Samuel Luke, a Puritan colonel of Bedfordshire, who is caricatured in the celebrated knight Hudibras. Butler published the first part of Hudibras after the Restoration, in 1663. It became immensely popular, and Charles II himself was perpetually quoting the poem, but did nothing for the author, who seems to have passed the latter part of his life dependent on the support of friends, and died in poverty in London in 1680. A second part of Hudibras appeared in 1664, a third in 1678. The poem is a sort of burlesque epic ridiculing Puritanism, and fanaticism and hypocrisy generally. Butler was author also of various other pieces, including a satire on the Royal Society entitled the Elephant in the Moon.
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Samuel C Reid was an American sailor. He was born in 1783 and died in 1861. He commanded the privateer General Armstrong, and fought at the Battle of Fayal in 1814 with a British squadron. He designed the US flag.
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Samuel C Crafts was an American politician. He was a National-Republican governor of Vermont from 1828 until 1831.
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Samuel Champlain was a French naval officer. He was born in 1570 and died in 1635. His exploits in the maritime war against Spain in 1595 caught the attention of Henry IV who in 1603 commissioned him to found establishments in North America. He made three voyages to found establishments in North America, the last founded Quebec, and in 1620 he was appointed Governor of Canada.
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Samuel Chase was an American patriot. He was born in 1741 at Maryland and died in 1811. He was a signer of the American Declaration of Independence and was a delegate to the Continental Congress from 1774 until 1778. He became Chief Justice of the General Court of Maryland in 1791, and was appointed a Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States in 1796. In 1804 he was impeached by the House of Representatives, on the ground of Federalist partisanship, but the Senate failed to sustain the charges.
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Samuuel Clarke was an English theological and philosophical writer. He was born in 1675 at Norwich and died in 1729. Educated at Caius College, Cambridge, he became chaplain to Dr. More, bishop of Norwich, and between 1699 and 1701 published Essays on Baptism, Confirmation, and Repentance, replied to Toland's Amyntor, and issued a paraphrase of the Gospels. He was then presented with two livings, and in 1704 and 1705 twice delivered the Boyle lectures at Oxford on The Being and Attributes of God, and on The Evidences of Natural and Revealed Religion.
In 1706 he published a letter to Mr. Dodwell on the Immortality of the Soul, and a Latin version of Newton's Optics. He was then appointed rector of St Bennet's, London, and shortly afterwards rector of St James's and chaplain to Queen Anne. In 1712 he edited Caesar's Commentaries, and published his Scripture Doctrine of the Trinity, which became a subject of much controversy and of complaint in the Lower House of Convocation. His chief subsequent productions were his discussions with Leibnitz and Collins on the Freedom of the Will, his Latin version of part of the Iliad, and a considerable number of sermons. His philosophic fame rests on his a priori argument for the existence of God, his theory of the nature and obligation of virtue as conformity to certain relations involved in the eternal fitness of things, and his opposition to Hobbes, Spinoza, Locke, Leibnitz, and others.
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Samuel Clemens was the real name of Mark Twain, the American writer.
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Samuel Franklin Cody was an American aviator. He was born in 1861 and died in 1913. He came to England in 1908 and invented a successful biplane in 1909. He was aeronautical advisor to the War Office and won its aeroplane competition in 1912. He was killed in an air crash near Aldershot.
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Samuel Taylor Coleridge was an English poet and philosopher. He was born in 1772 at Ottery St Mary in Devon and died in 1834. Sent to school at Christ's Church Hospital, to which he had obtained a representation, the young Samuel Coleridge took little interest in the ordinary sports of childhood, and was noted for a dreamy abstracted manner, though he made considerable progress in classical studies, and was known even at that early age as a devourer of metaphysical and theological works.
From Christ's Church he went with a scholarship to Jesus College, Cambridge, where he remained for two years, but without achieving much distinction. At this time, too, his ultra-radical and rationalistic opinions made the idea of academic preferment hopeless, and perhaps it was partly to escape the difficulties and perplexities gathering about his future that Samuel Coleridge suddenly quit Cambridge and enlisted in the 15th Dragoons. Rescued by his friends from this position, he took up his residence at Bristol with two congenial spirits, Robert Southey, who had just been obliged to quit Oxford for his Unitarian opinions, and Lovell, a young Quaker. The three conceived the project of emigrating to America, and establishing a pantisocracy as they termed it, or community in which all should be equal, on the banks of the Susquehanna. This scheme, however, never became anything more than a theory, and was finally disposed of when, in 1795, the three friends married three sisters, the Misses Pricket of Bristol.
Samuel Coleridge about this time started a periodical, the Watchman, which did not survived beyond the ninth number. In 1796 he took a cottage at Nether Stowey, in Somersetshire, where, soothed and supported by the companionship of Wordsworth, who came to reside at Allfoxden, he wrote much of his best poetry, in particular the Ancient Mariner and the first part of Christabel. While residing at Nether Stowey he used to officiate in a Unitarian chapel at Taunton, and in 1798 received an invitation to take the charge of a congregation of this denomination at Shrewsbury, where, however, he did nothing further than preach the probation sermon.
An annuity bestowed on him by some friends (the Wedgewoods) furnished him with the means of making a tour to Germany, where he studied at the University of Gottingen. In 1800 he returned to England and took up his residence beside Southey at Keswick, while Wordsworth lived at Grasmere in the same neighbourhood. From this fact, and a certain common vein in their poetry, arose the epithet of 'Lake School' applied to their works. About 1804 Coleridge went to Malta to re-establish his health, seriously impaired by opium-eating. In 1806 he returned to England, and after ten years of somewhat desultory literary work as lecturer, contributor to periodicals, etc, Samuel Coleridge in a sort took refuge from the world in the house of his friend Mr. Gillman at Highgate, London. Here he passed the rest of his days, holding weekly conversaziones in which he poured himself forth in eloquent monologues, being by general consent one of the most wonderful talkers of the time.
His views on religious and political subjects had now become mainly orthodox and conservative, and a great work on the Logos, which should reconcile reason and faith, was one of the dreams of his later years. But Samuel Coleridge had long been incapable of concentrating his energies on anything, and of the many years he spent in the leisure and quietness of Highgate nothing remains but the Table Talk and the fragmentary notes and criticism gathered together, and edited by his nephew, valuable enough of their kind, but less than might have been expected of Samuel Coleridge.
The dreamy and transcendental character of Samuel Coleridge's poetry eminently exhibits the man. In his best moments he has a fine sublimity of thought and expression not surpassed by Milton; but he is often turgid and verbose. As a critic, especially of William Shakespeare, Samuel Coleridge's work is of the highest rank, combining a comprehensive grasp of large critical principles and a singularly subtle insight into details.
Samuel Coleridge's poetical works include The Ancient Mariner, Christabel (incomplete), Remorse, a tragedy, Kubia Khan, a translation of Schiller's Wallenstein, etc; his prose works, Biographia Literaria, The Friend, The Statesman's Manual, Aids to Reflection, On the Constitution of Church and State, etc. Posthumously were published specimens of his Table Talk, Literary Remains, etc.
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Samuel Colt was an American inventor. He was born in 1814 at Hartford, Connecticut and died in 1862. He ran away from home and joined the navy, and later patented the first successful percussion revolver first in England in 1835 and later in America in 1836.
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Samuel Cony was an American politician. He was a Republican governor of Maine from 1864 until 1867.
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Samuel Cooper was an American soldier. He was born in 1798 and died in 1876. From 1815 he was an officer in the US army and was adjutant-general from 1852 until 1861. Resigning, he then became adjutant-general and inspector-general of the Confederate army.
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Samuel Cousins was an English mezzotint engraver. He was born in 1801 at Exeter and died in 1887. He engraved plates after Lawrence, Landseer, Reynolds, Millais, Leslie, Eastlake, Ward, etc. He was elected Royal Academician Engraver in 1855, and when this class was abolished he became an Academician proper. On his death he bequeathed 15,000 pounds to the Academy in trust for poor artists.
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Samuel Rutherford Crockett was a Scottish novelist. He was born in 1859, near New Galloway and died in 1914. Educated at Castle-Douglas and at Edinburgh University, he became Free Church minister at Penicuik, but gave up the church for literature. The Stickit Minister, which appeared in 1893, first made his name known. After that he produced a number of tales and sketches, including The Raiders; Mad Sir Ughtred of the Hills; The Lilac Sun-bonnet; The Men of the Moss Hags; The Playactress; Sweetheart Travellers; Cleg Kelly, Arab of the City; etc.
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Samuel Crompton was an English inventor born in 1753 near Bolton he died in 1827. He early displayed a turn for mechanics, and when only twenty-one years of age invented his machine for spinning cotton, which was called a mule, from its combining the principles of Hargreave's spinning-jenny and Arkwright's roller-frame, both invented a few years previously. The mule shared in the odium excited among the Lancashire hand-weavers against these machines, and for a time Samuel Crompton was obliged to conceal his invention. He afterwards brought it again into work; but was unable to prevent others from profiting by it at his expense. Various improvements were introduced from time to time on the mule, but the original principle, as devised by Samuel Crompton, remained the same. The sum of 5000 pounds, voted to him by parliament in 1812, was almost all the remuneration which he received for an invention which contributed so essentially to the development of British manufactures.
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Sir Samuel Cunard was the founder of the Cunard shipping line. He was born in Wales in 1787 and died in 1865.
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Samuel R Curtis was an American soldier. He was born in 1807 and died in 1866. An Ohio lawyer from 1841 to 1846, he became adjutant-general of militia in 1846, and during the Mexican War commanded at Camarago against General Urrea. He was a Congressman from Iowa from 1857 to 1861, when he was commissioned brigadier-general and gained a great victory at Pea Ridge, Arkansas He commanded Fort Leavenworth during the Price raid in 1864, and was US Commissioner to negotiate Indian treaties.
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Samuel D Felker was an American politician. He was a Democratic governor of New Hampshire from 1913 until 1915.
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Samuel D McEnery was an American politician. He was a Democratic governor of Louisiana from 1881 until 1888.
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Samuel Dale was an American army scout. He was born in 1772 and died in 1841. He became a US army scout in 1793 and commanded a battalion against the Creeks in 1814. He was appointed with Colonel George Gaines to remove the Choctaw Indians to their reservations on the Arkansas and Red Rivers.
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Samuel Daniel was an English poet and historian. He was born in 1562 and died in 1619. Under the patronage of the Pembroke family he received several court appointments, but he commonly lived in the country, employed in literary pursuits. His great poem, The History of the Civil Wars between the Houses of York and Lancaster, is written with much rhetorical grace and dignity of style. He wrote also epistles, pastorals, sonnets, and a few tragedies, as well as a clear and useful sketch of English history until the time of Edward III and 'Defence of Ryme'.
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Samuel Davidson was an Irish biblical scholar. He was born in 1807 and died in 1898. He studied at Glasgow and Belfast, entered the Presbyterian ministry, and was for a time a divinity professor at Belfast, afterwards joined the Congregationalists, and was a professor in their college at Manchester, but had to resign owing to his advanced theological views, and settled in London. His works include: Introduction to the New Testament; Introduction to the Old Testament; Biblical Criticism; translation of the New Testament, from Tischendorf's text; Canon of the Bible; Doctrine of Last Things.
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Samuel de Champlain was a French navigator. He was born in 1567 and died in 1635. In 1599 he sailed in the 'St Julien' for the West Indies, and returned by way of the Isthmus of Panama, across which he conceived the plan of a ship-canal. In 1603 and 1604 in two voyages, he explored the St Lawrence River. Between 1604 and 1606 he explored and mapped the coast of America as far as Cape Cod. On his next voyage he founded Quebec in 1608. In 1609 he joined the Montagnais against the Iroquois. They ascended the Sorel River and entered the lake to which he gave his own name.
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Samuel Dexter was an American politiican. He was born in 1761 and died in 1816. A noted lawyer of Massachusetts, he was successively, for short periods in 1800 and 1801, Secretary of War and of the Treasury in the Cabinet of President John Adams.
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Samuel Dinsmoor was an American politician. He was a Democratic governor of New Hampshire from 1831 until 1834.
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Samuel Dinsmoor Jr. was an American politician. He was a Democratic governor of New Hampshire from 1849 until 1852.
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Samuel Rolles Driver was an English professor of Hebrew and Biblical critic. He was born in 1846 at Southampton and died in 1914. He was educated at Winchester and at New College, Oxford, where he graduated with first-class honours in classics in 1869. He gained the Pusey and Ellerton Hebrew Scholarship in 1866, and the Kennicott Scholarship (also for Hebrew) four years later, besides prizes for Septuagint Greek and Syriac. He was for some years a fellow and tutor of his college, and from 1876 to 1881 a member of the Old Testament Revision Company. In 1883, on the death of Pusey, he became Regius Professor of Hebrew at Oxford and (ipso facto) a Canon of Christ Church. Of his numerous works may be mentioned: A Treatise on the Use of the Tenses in Hebrew (1874); Isaiah: His Life and Times (1888); Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament (1891), a work suited for popular reading, which has passed through many editions; Sermons on Subjects connected with the Old Testament (1892); the Parallel Psalter (1904);
Commentaries on various books of the Bible; articles in Bible dictionaries and in periodicals ; etc. He was a joint editor of the new Hebrew-English Lexicon of the Old Testament published by the Clarendon Press.
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Samuel E Pingree was an American politician. He was a Republican governor of Vermont from 1884 until 1886.
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Samuel E Smith was an American politician. He was a Democratic governor of Maine from 1831 until 1834.
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Samuel Elbert was an American politician. He was a governor of Georgia from 1785 until 1786.
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Samuel F Miller was an American jurist and politician. He was born in 1816 and died in 1890. He was an ardent anti-slavery advocate and a Republican leader in Iowa. He was a Justice of the US Supreme Court from 1862 to 1890, and was regarded by many as its leading member.
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Samuel A Foote was an American politician. He was born in 1780 and died in 1846. He was a Representative from Connecticut in the US Congress from 1819 to 1821 and 1823 to 1825; was Speaker of the State Legislature from 1825 to 1826, and a US Senator from 1827 to 1833. In the Senate he offered the resolution which caused the famous debate between Webster and Hayne. He was Governor of Connecticut in 1834.
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Samuel Francis Du Pont was an American naval commander. He was born in 1803 and died in 1865. He entered the navy in his youth, but had no opportunities for distinction until the Mexican War, when he took San Diego. His great naval feat was in the first year of the American Civil War; he captured the fortifications of Port Royal harbour on November 7th 1861, and followed up this success by seizing Tybee and reducing many points on the coast of Georgia and Florida. For these successes he was made rear-admiral. The unsuccessful attacks on the defences of Charleston, under his lead, in 1863, were made against his better judgment.
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Samuel G Cosgrove was an American politician. He was a Republican governor of Washington during 1909.
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Samuel Rawson Gardiner was an English historian. He was born in 1829 and died in 1902. Educated at Winchester and Christ Church, Oxford, he was for some years professor of modern history at King's College, London, but resigned in 1885. He specially devoted himself to the period of English history beginning with the accession of James I, and gave a full and impartial account of the events of the time, based on the original documents. The first section comes down to the outbreak of the English Civil War (1603-1642), the second deals with the civil war (1642-1649), the third with the Commonwealth and Protectorate. He also wrote a Student's History of England, etc.
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Sir Samuel Garth was an English physician and poet. He was born in 1661 and died in 1719. Educated at Peterhouse, Cambridge he graduated in medicine in 1691, after studying at Leyden and was made a fellow of the College of Physicians in 1693. A division among the medical profession on the establishment of a dispensary for the metropolitan poor was the occasion of his successful mock-heroic poem, The Dispensary published in 1699. He became the chief Whig physician, as Radcliffe was chief Tory physician, and on the accession of George I was knighted, and appointed physician in ordinary to the king, and physician-general to the army. He wrote much in verse and prose, including translations.
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Samuel Griswold Goodrich was an american politician and writer. He was born in 1793 at Eidgefield, Connecticut, 1793 and died in 1860. He was a publisher in Hartford and afterwards in Boston. He served in the Massachusetts Senate in 1838 and 1839, and was US Consul at Paris from 1851 until 1855. He published many juvenile and educational works, usually under the pseudonym of Peter Parley, famous among which was a popular history of the United States.
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Samuel Gorton was an English religious leader. He was born in 1600 and died in 1677. He emigrated to America from England in 1636, was banished from Massachusetts for religious reasons, and finally settled in Rhode Island, where he founded a religious sect. He afterward named the place Warwick, in honour of the earl from whom he obtained redress for his grievances, when between 1644 and 1647 he was persecuted by Massachusetts.
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Samuel H Elrod was an American politician. He was a Republican governor of South Dakota from 1905 until 1907.
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Samuel H Shapiro was an American politician. He was a Democratic governor of Illinois from 1968 until 1969.
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Samuel Christian Friedrich Hahnemann was a German doctor. He was born in 1775 at Meissen and died in 1843. He was the founder of the homoeopathic system. He studied medicine at Leipzig, Vienna, and Erkangen, taking his degree at the last-mentioned place in 1779. After practising in various places, he published in 1810 his Organon der rationellen Heilkunde, which fully explained his new system of curing any disorder by employing a medicine which produces a similar disorder. He was driven from Saxony by the government which prohibited him from dispensing medicines, and found asylum in Paris, France where the government authorised his system and it found a popular following.
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Samuel Carter Hall was an English writer. He was born in 1800 and died in 1889. He studied law and became a barrister; reported parliamentary debates for the New Times; edited in succession the Amulet, the New Monthly Magazine, and the Art Journal from 1839 to 1880, besides various popular annuals, and the Book of Gems, Book of British Ballads, and Baronial Halls. He also published Memories of Great Men and Women of the Age (1870),and The Retrospect of a Long Life (1883). He was associated with the founding of various London charities, and from 1880 received an annual civil-list pension. His wife was Anna Maria Fielding, an Irish writer.
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Samuel P Heintzelman was an American soldier. He was born in 1805 and died in 1880. He graduated at West Point, served as a captain in the Mexican War, and was brevetted major for bravery. He was commissioned colonel in the American Civil War, and afterward commanded as brigadier-general at Alexandria, Bull Run, Yorktown, Williamsburg and Fair Oaks, and in 1863 commanded the Northern Department. He was retired in 1869 with the full rank of major-general USA.
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Sir Samuel Hood was an English naval officer. He was born in 1762 and died in 1814. He saw action off Dominica in 1782 under his cousin, also called Samuel Hood. In 1793 he gained fame for his clever escape from the port of Toulon which he had entered believing it to be in British hands. In 1797 he commanded the Zealous at the attack on Santa Cruz and at the Battle of the Nile in 1798. In 1805 he lost an arm capturing four heavy frigates off Rochefort.
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Viscount Samuel Hood was an English sailor. He was born in 1724 and died in 1816. He joined the navy as a midshipman in 1740, and attained the rank of post-captain in 1759. Having become rear-admiral, he preserved the island of St Christopher's from being taken by De Grasse, assisted in the defeat of De Grasse by Hoduey in 1782, and was rewarded with the title of Baron Hood of Gatherington in the Irish peerage. In 1793 he commanded against the French in the Mediterranean, and captured Toulon and Corsica. In 1796 he was made an English peer, with the title of Viscount Hood.
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Samuel Hooper was an American politician. He was born in 1808 and died in 1875. He was a member of the Massachusetts Legislature from 1851 to 1854, and of the US Congress as a Republican from 1861 to 1875. He served on the Committees of Ways and Means, Banking and Currency, and War Debts.
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Samuel Hopkins was an American theologian. He was norn in 1721 at Connecticut and died in 1803. He was ordained in 1743, and became a pastor at Newport, Rohde Island in 1770. He was prominent in the Rhode Island anti-slavery movements in 1774. His religious views exerted a powerful influence.
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Samuel Horsley was an English bishop. He was born in 1733 and died in 1806. He was educated at Cambridge, and in 1759 became rector of Newington Butts. In 1767 he was chosen a fellow of the Royal Society, of which he was appointed secretary in 1773. After several charges he was appointed in 1788 Bishop of St David's, from which he was translated to Rochester in 1793, receiving at the same time the deanery of Westminster; and finally to St Asaph in 1802, when he resigned his deanery. Samuel Horsley was the greatest theological controversialist of his day, and is famous for his controversy with Priestley on Unitarianism. He published numerous sermons, and several works on Biblical criticism, besides editing an edition of Sir Isaac Newton's works.
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Samuel Houston was an American politician. He was born in 1793 and died in 1863. Enlisted in the US army in 1813, he was promoted to lieutenant for bravery in the Creek War of 1813 to 1814. He represented Tennessee in the US Congress as a Democrat from 1823 to 1827, and was Governor of Tennessee from 1827 to 1829. He was a member of the Texas Constitutional Convention in 1833. As commander-in-chief of the Texan army he secured the independence of Texas. He was president of Texas from 1836 to 1838 and from 1841 to 1844, secured the annexation of Texas to the United States and represented it in Congress from 1845 to 1859. He was again chosen Governor of Texas in 1859 and served until he refused to espouse the Confederate cause in 1861.
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Samuel G Howe was an American writer. He was born in 1801 and died in 1876. He founded a school for the blind in 1833 subsequently called the Perkins Institution, of which he was superintendent until 1876, and at which Laura Bridgman was educated. From 1851 to 1853 he edited the Commonwealth. When commissioner to Santo Domingo in 1871 he advocated annexation to the United States. He was author of an 'Historical Sketch of the Greek Revolution', in which he had participated.
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Samuel D Hubbard was an American politician. He was born in 1799 and died in 1855. He represented Connecticut in the US Congress as a Whig from 1845 to 1849. He was Postmaster-General in Fillmore's Cabinet from 1852 to 1853.
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Samuel Huntington was an American politician. He was born in 1732 at Cobbecticut and died in 1796. He signed the Declaration of Independence in 1776, was President of the Continental Congress from 1779 to 1781, and Governor of Connecticut from 1786 to 1796.
Samuel Huntington was an American politician. He was a Democratic-Republican governor of Ohio from 1808 until 1810.
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Samuel D Ingham was an American politician. He was born in 1779 and died in 1860. He represented Pennsylvania in the US Congress as a Democrat from 1813 to 1818, and from 1822 to 1829. He was Secretary of the Treasury from 1829 to 1831 in Jackson's Cabinet.
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Samuel Insull was an English born American financier. He was born in 1859 at London and died in 1938. He moved to the USA in 1881 and became the private secretary to Thomas Edison. On consolidation of Edison's interests, Insull became vice president of Edison General Electric Co. in 1889 and president of the Chicago Edison Co. in 1892 and of Commonwealth Electric Co. of Chicago in 1898, which he merged as Commonwealth Edison. He was also the president of Peoples' Gas Light and Coke Co. , Chicago, and various other companies. Over expansion caused financial difficulties for a pyramid of holding companies he created and three of his largest companies went into receivership in 1932 resulting in his indictment, he fled to Europe but returned in 1934 and was three times acquitted of fraud and embezzlement.
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Samuel J Crawford was an American politician. He was a Republican governor of Kansas from 1865 until 1868.
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Samuel J Kirkwood was an American politician. He was born in 1813 and died in 1894. He was prosecuting attorney of Richland County, Ohio, from 1845 to 1849. He was Governor of Iowa from 1859 to 1863. He represented Iowa in the US Senate as a Republican from 1866 to 1867. He was Governor of Iowa from 1875 to 1877, and a US Senator from 1877 to 1881, when he became Secretary of the Interior in Garfield's Cabinet, serving until 1882.
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Samuel Johnson was an English writer. He was born in 1709 and died in 1784. He was twice imprisoned for debt.
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Samuel Johnston was an American politician. He was a Federalist governor of North Carolina from 1787 until 1789.
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Samuel Jones Tilden was an American lawyer and politician. He was born in 1814 at New Lebanon, New York and died in 1886. Educated at Yale and New York university, he was called to the bar in 1841. He was a Democratic governor of New York from 1875 until 1876 when he stood as a Democratic presidential candidate, but lost the election to Rutherford Hayes by a single vote after an investigation into illegal voting in Louisiana, South Carolina and Florida. Tilden then retired from public life.
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Samuel L Southard was an American politician. He was born in 1787 and died in 1842. He represented New Jersey in the US Senate as a Democrat from 1821 to 1823. He was Secretary of the Navy in the Cabinets of Monroe and Adams from 1823 to 1829. He was acting Secretary of the Treasury from March to July in 1825, Governor of New Jersey in 1832, and a US Senator from 1833 to 1842.
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Samuel M Ralston was an American politician. He was a Democratic governor of Indiana from 1913 until 1917.
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Samuel Maunder was an English writer. He was born in 1785 at Devon and died in 1849.
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Samuel Medary was an American journalist. He was born in 1801 and died in 1864. he founded the Ohio Statesman, a powerful Democratic paper, and edited it until 1858. He is said to have originated the campaign cry, 'Fifty-four forty or fight'.
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Samuel Merrill was an American politician. He was a Republican governor of Iowa from 1868 until 1872.
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Samuel Morley was an English politician and philanthropist. He was born in 1809 at London and died in 1886. He was returned MP for Nottingham in 1865, later losing that seat and representing Bristol from 1868 to 1885, declining a peerage on his retirement. A great philanthropist he granted liberal pensions to his workpeople and gave large sums to nonconformist projects.
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Samuel Finley Breese Morse was an American artist and inventor. He was born in 1791 and died in 1872. Educated at Yale, in 1810 he travelled to England to study art with Allston and Benjamin West, exhibiting at the Royal Academy in 1813. In 1815 he returned to New York and settled as a portrait painter. In 1826 he was appointed the first president of the national academy of design. Interested in science, he experimented with the phenomena of electricity and invented the morse code in 1832 as a by-product of his invention of communications by electric telegraphy and conceived the idea of a recording magnetic telegraph.
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Samuel Nelson was an American jusrist. He was born in 1792 at New York and died in 1873. He was a Circuit Judge from 1823 to 1831. He was a Justice of the New York Supreme Court from 1831 to 1837 and its Chief Justice from 1837 to 1845. He was a Justice of the US Supreme Court from 1845 to 1873. He was a member of the Joint High Commission, which in 1871 negotiated the Treaty of Washington.
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Samuel Osgood was an American politician. He was born in 1748 and died in 1813. He was a delegate from Massachusetts to the Continental Congress from 1780 to 1784, Commissioner of the Treasury from 1785 to 1789, and Postmaster-General from 1789 to 1791.
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Samuel P Goddard Jr. was an American politician. He was a Democratic governor of Arizona from 1965 until 1967.
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Samuel Parris was an American clergyman. He was born in 1653 in England and died in 1720. He was a clergyman in Salem, Massachusetts, from 1689 to 1696. In 1692 his daughter and niece accused Tituba, a slave, of bewitching them. Samuel Parris beat Tituba until she confessed to the crime she hadn't committed. The delusion spread, and the Salem Witch trials were inaugurated in which nineteen innocent people were hanged. Samuel Parris afterward acknowledged his error.
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Samuel H Parsons was an American politician. He was born in 1737 and died in 1789. He was a member of the Connecticut Assembly from 1762 to 1780. He planned the capture of Ticonderoga in 1775. He fought at Long Island in 1776, and commanded a brigade at White Plains and the troops at New York Highlands from 1778 until 1779. He succeeded General Israel Putnam in command of the Connecticut line in 1780. He had an important part in the forming of the Ohio Company, the securing of the Ordinance for the Government of the Northwest Territory and the early settlement of Ohio.
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Samuel Paynter was an American politician. He was a Federalist governor of Delaware from 1824 until 1827.
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Samuel Pepys was an English civil servant and staunch Royalist, renowned for his diary. He was born in 1633 at London and died in 1703. He entered the navy office in 1660, a few months after starting his diary. He was appointed secretary to the Admiralty in 1672, imprisoned in the tower of London with loss of office in 1679 on suspicion of being connected with the Popish Plot - no formal charges were ever brought against him, he was reinstated in 1684, and finally deprived at the 1688 Revolution when he retired to Clapham. His diary was discontinued in 1669 as he thought his sight was failing, and was written in a personal version of Shelton's shorthand, and was not deciphered until 1825 - and then only transcribed in a censored edition. In 1970 his diary, all twelve volumes and 1.3 million words was finally transcribed in its entirety. His diary is unrivalled for its intimacy and the human picture it presents of daily life in the 17th century, much of which is disturbing by modern standards, Pepys having no qualms about recording details of the executions he witnessed, and the adulterous affairs that appear to have been the norm.
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Samuel Peters was an American clergyman. He was born in 1735 and died in 1826. He became a Church-of-England minister in the churches of Hartford and Hebron, Connecticut, in 1762. He was suspected of being a Tory, and in 1774 was required to make a written declaration that he had not communicated with England concerning the controversies with the colonies and would not do so. Soon afterward he fled to England. He wrote a satirical 'History of Connecticut' which greatly angered his former oppressors.
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Samuel S Phelps was an American jurist and politician. He was born in 1793 and died in 1855. He was a Judge of the Vermont Supreme Court from 1831 to 1838. He represented Vermont in the US Senate from 1839 to 1851, and from 1853 to 1854. He was a pro-slavery Democrat.
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Samuel C Pomeroy was an American politician. He was born in 1816 and died in 1891. He was an organizer of the New England Emigrant Aid Society, and founded a colony at Lawrence, Kansas, in 1854. He represented Kansas in the US Senate as a Republican from 1861 to 1873.
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Samuel Prior ('The children's policeman') was an English policeman. He was born in 1862 and died in 1944. An orphan at the age of nine he worked for the London, Brighton and South Coast Railway, before joining the metropolitan police in 1888. During his twenty-five years with the Metropolitan police he championed the cause of abused and exploited children, being responsible for 600 cases of rescuing children and having them placed in industrial schools where they could learn a trade. After his retirement from the police he worked with the Children's Aid Society.
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Samuel Prout was an English painter in water-colours. He was born in 1783 at Plymouth and died in 1852. He became famous for his drawings of street scenes and the quaint mediaeval architecture of Europe.
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Samuel Provoost was an American bishop. He was born in 1742 and died in 1815. He was rector of Trinity Church, New York, from 1784 to 1800. He was Bishop of New York from 1787 to 1801, and was one of the first bishops consecrated for America.
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Samuel R McKelvie was an American politician. He was a Republican governor of Nebraska from 1919 until 1923.
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Samuel R Van Sant was an American politician. He was a Republican governor of Minnesota from 1901 until 1905.
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Samuel J Randall was an American politician. He was born in 1828 and died in 1890. He represented Pennsylvania in the US Congress as a Democrat from 1863 to 1890. He distinguished himself by speeches against the 'Force Bill' in 1875. While chairman of the Committee on Appropriations, from 1875 to 1876, he curtailed expenditures by a systematic reduction in appropriations. He was Speaker from 1876 to 1881. He was prominent as a leader in opposition to the Morrison tariff bill in 1884. He served on Committees of Banking, Rules and elections. He was prominent in tariff debates as a leader of the protectionist wing of the Democratic party.
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Samuel Richardson was an English novelist. He was born in 1689 at Derbyshire and died in 1761.
The son of a joiner, after serving an apprenticeship as a printer he entered into business and became printer of the House of Commons Journals, and King's Printer and was made master of the Stationers' Company.
Samuel Richardson began to write novels when he was quite old and was approached with a view to publishing a model letter-writer. This suggestion was the origin of his first novel, 'Pamela', which was published in 1740. It was intended as a moral novel, and as such met with much ridicule, but was original and full of life. 'Pamela' was followed by 'Clarissa Harlowe',
a somewhat tedious seven-volume novel, written between 1747 and 1748, and 'Sir Charles Grandison' published in 1753.
Critics place Samuel Richardson's chief importance in his introduction of the analysis of human emotion into novel writing. He had great influence on the Continent, being the inspirer of Diderot and Rousseau among others and his novel 'Pamela' allegedly inspired Henry Fielding to write novels.
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Samuel Rogers was an English poet. He was born in 1763 and died in 1855. He was the son of a banker. He was offered the laureateship when William Wordsworth died in 1850.
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Samuel S Cox (also known as 'Sunset Cox') was an American newspaperman and statesman. He was born in 1824 and died in 1889. He was editor of the Columbus, Ohio 'Statesman'. In 1855 he was Secretary of Legatation to Peru and from 1857 until 1877 a member of Congress. From 1885 to 1886 he was Minister to Turkey.
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Samuel Heinrich Schwabe was a German astronomer and botanist. He was born in 1789 at Dessau and died in 1875. In 1826 he began observing the sun, and for the next forty-two years each day recorded the visible sun spots, the results of his observation being published in a tabular form in 1851 in volume 3 of Humboldt's 'Kosmos', thereby establishing for certain the sun- spot cycle.
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Samuel Sewall was an English jurist. He was born in 1652 and died in 1730. He went to America from England in 1661. He was an 'assistant' of Massachusetts from 1684 to 1688, a member of the Executive Council from 1692 to 1735, and judge of the probate court from 1692 to 1718. He was prominent in the Salem witchcraft trials and afterward publicly acknowledged his error. He was Chief Justice from 1718 to 1728. He published 'The Selling of Joseph', one of the first tracts advocating the rights of slaves, and kept a diary, since published, which gives an interesting and amusing picture of life in Puritan Boston.
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Samuel Slater was an English engineer. He was born in 1768 and died in 1835. He went to America from England in 1789 to introduce cotton machinery in the American States. His machinery was constructed from memory, as communication of models of English machinery was forbidden. He started his new cotton-spinning machinery at Pawtucket, Rhode Island in 1790, which was the beginning of cotton manufacture in America. He established mills at Webster and Slaterville, Massachusetts.
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Samuel Smiles was an English author and social reformer. He was born in 1812 at Haddington and died in 1904. Educated at Edinburgh University, he graduated as a medical doctor but dissatisfied with medical practice, he went to Leeds, where he became editor of The Leeds Times and an active social reformer. Subsequently he became identified with railway management in Leeds and later in London. His first literary success was a biography of George Stephenson published in 1857. In 1859 he published his best known work, 'Self Help', a work designed to show what can be accomplished in life by determination and the will to succeed, illustrated by copious examples from the lives of eminent people.
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Samuel Smith was an American soldier and politician. He was born in 1752 at Maryland and died in 1839. He fought at Long Island, Harlem and White Plains, and was distinguished at Brandywine and Fort Mifflin, which he commanded. He also fought at Monmouth. He represented Maryland in the US Congress as a Democrat from 1793 to 1803, in the US Senate from 1803 to 1815, and again in the House from 1816 to 1822. He was again US Senator from 1833 to 1835. He attempted, with his brother Robert Smith, to control Madison's administration.
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Samuel Sprigg was an American politician. He was a Democratic-Republican governor of Maryland from 1819 until 1822.
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Samuel Stevens Jr. was an American politician. He was a Democratic- Republican governor of Maryland from 1822 until 1826.
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Samuel Stone was an English Puritan divine. He was born in 1602 at Hertford and died in 1663. He went to New England in 1633 and settled at Newtown as a teacher. In 1636 he and Hook the preacher migrated with the majority of the inhabitants to a settlement in Connecticut which they called Hartford.
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Samuel Tucker was an American sailor. He was born in 1747 at Massachusetts and died in 1833. While commander of the Franklin and the Hancock in 1776, he captured more than thirty vessels. From 1777 to 1780 he commanded the Boston, and captured many prizes, including the sloop-of-war Thorn. He commanded the Thorn from 1780 to 1781, when he was captured by the British frigate HMS Hind. He was a member of the Massachusetts Legislature from 1814 to 1818.
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Samuel W Hale was an American politician. He was a Republican governor of New Hampshire from 1883 until 1885.
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Samuel W McCall was an American politician. He was a Republican governor of Massachusetts from 1916 until 1919.
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Samuel W Pennypacker was an American politician. He was a Republican governor of Pennsylvania from 1903 until 1907.
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Samuel Ward was an American politician. He was born in 1725 and died in 1776. He was Governor of Rhode Island from 1762 to 1763 and from 1765 to 1767. He was a delegate to the Continental Congress from 1774 to 1775.
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Samuel Ward King was an American politician. He was a Rhode Island Party governor of Rhode Island from 1840 until 1843.
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Samuel Warren was a British novelist. He was born in 1807 at Wales and died in 1877. He was called to the bar in 1837 and held the post of MP for Midhurst from 1856 to 1859.
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Samuel Wells was an American politician. He was a Democratic governor of Maine from 1856 until 1857.
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Samuel Wells Williams was an American Orientalist. He was born in 1812 at Utica, New York and died in 1884. He went to China in 1833 as. a printer for the missionary board at Canton. He learned Japanese, and made a version of Genesis and St. Matthew into that language. He wrote 'Easy Lessons in Chinese' in 1841, 'An English and Chinese Vocabulary' in 1843, 'A Chinese Commercial Guide' in 1844, 'The Middle Kingdom' in 1848, and ' Tonic Dictionary of the Chinese Language' in 1856. In 1858 he assisted in the negotiations at Tientsin.
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Samuel Pickworth Woodward was an English naturalist and expert on invertebrate fossils. He was born in 1821 at Norwich and died in 1865. He was engaged as an assistant to the botanist Turner, and in 1838 went to work at the British Museum and later in the Geological Society. In 1851 he published ' Manual of the Mollusca'.
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Samuel Woodworth was an American journalist and poet. He was born in 1785 and died in 1842. He was engaged in numerous journalistic-ventures. He is chiefly memorable for his poems, of which the 'Old Oaken Bucket' was the most popular.
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The Samurai are a Japanese military caste.
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The San (formerly Bushman) are a small group of hunter-gatherer peoples living in and around the Kalahari Desert. Their language belongs to the Khoisan family.
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Sandro Botticelli was an Italian painter of the Florentine School. He was born in 1444 and died in 1510. He started his career working in the shop of a goldsmith named Botticelli, from whom he took his name. He showed such talent however, that he was removed and taken to the studio of painter Fra Lippio Lippi from where he learnt his vigorous style.
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The Sanemar are an indigenous people of the Amazon rain forest, Venezuela. They are hunters and fishermen.
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Sanford Ballard Dole was the president of the Republic of Hawaii and the first governor of the Territory of Hawaii. He was born in 1844 at Honolulu and died in 1926. The son of American Protestant missionaries, he went to the USA to study law and returned to Hawaii to practise as a lawyer, became elected to government and was a leader in the 1893 revolt against the monarchy. In 1894 he was elected the first president of the Republic of Hawaii, a position he held until the annexation of Hawaii to the USA in 1900 when President McKinley of the USA appointed him territorial governor. In 1903 he became the US district judge for Hawaii and in 1909 was re-elected governor, a position he held until the position expired in 1915 when he subsequently retired from public life.
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Sanford E Church was an American jurist. He was born in 1815 at New York and died in 1880. He was Lieutenant-Governor from 1851 until 1855; Comptroller from 1858 until 1869; and Chief Justice of the Court of Appeals from 1870 until his death.
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Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna was a Mexican politician. He was born in 1795 and died in 1876. He entered the Spanish army in Mexico, sided finally with the patriots, opposed Iturbide, and became a politico-military leader of national prominence. He was President from 1832 to 1835. The next year he marched against the Texan revolutionists, stormed the Alamo, and was defeated by Houston at San Jacinto and captured. He was head of the executive in 1839, and again President from 1841 to 1844; overthrown, he was once more President in 1846, and in 1847 was beaten by Taylor at Buena Vista. After Scott's victories and conquest of the capital Santa Anna resigned, but reappeared as President and dictator in 1853 holding office until 1855. He frequently attempted to regain power, and was a marshal under the empire, but died in obscurity.
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The name Saracens was a general name applied by the Greeks and Latins to the Arab tribes along the edge of the Syrian desert, and was later used by European mediaeval writers to indicate Muslims in general, especially those encountered in European countries.
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Sarah McLachlan is a Canadian singer and song-writer. She was born in 1968 at Halifax, Nova Scotia. She started playing the piano when she was five years old and when she was 17 signed to the Nettwerk recording label. Her first album, 'Touch' was released in 1988, and she has also provided music for numerous films and television shows.
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Sarah Pridden (also known as Sally Salisbury) was an English prostitute. She was born in 1692 and died in 1723. Born into poverty she worked the streets of London until abandoned at the age of 17 by her first lover, Francis Charteris, she went to work at the exclusive brothel run by Mother Wiseborne. While working there she stabbed a customer and was convicted of assault, despite his pleas that she should be released, and sentenced to a year in prison. She died while in prison.
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Sarah Winnemucca was a Paiute diplomat and writer. She was born in 1844 in Nevada, USA and died in 1891. In 1860 her mother, sister and brother were killed during the Paiute War and she subsequently acted as a mediator between her people and the occupying Americans. Later she wrote the book 'Life Among The Paiutes' describing the suffering of the Paiute people.
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The Saryks or Sariks are a Turcoman tribe of central Russian Asia. About 1800 they controlled the whole Merv oasis but were driven out in 1850 by the Tekke Turcomans and in 1884 submitted to Russia.
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Sassacus was chief of the Pequot Indians. He was born about 1560 and died in 1637. He led an attack on a fort at Saybrook and massacred its inmates. The English under John Mason massacred almost the entire Pequot people in 1637.
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Sauvolle Le Moine was a French colonial governor. He was born in 1671 and died in 1701. Educated in France, where he was eminent for his attainments. He was appointed first colonial Governor of Louisiana by Louis XIV., serving from 1699 to 1701.
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Savatore Quasimodo was an Italian poet. He was born in 1901 and died in 1968.
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Savinien Cyrano de Bergerac was a French writer. He was born in 1619 and died in 1655. He composed at college Le Pedant Joue, a comedy, which furnished hints for Moliere's Fourberies de Scapin; entered the army and won a high reputation for bravery, but was disabled by wounds. Notwithstanding these, however, he was throughout life a notorious duellist and universally dreaded. His best-known works, which show a strong but eccentric intelligence, are his Histoire Comique des Etats et Empires de la Lune, and Histoire Comique des Etats et Empires du Soleil, describing visits to the moon and the sun; they find kinship with Lucian's Veracious History, certain portions of Rabelais, and Swift's Voyage to Laputa.
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The Saxons were a Teutonic race which invaded Britain between the 5th and 7th centuries.
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Saxred was joint ruler of the East Saxons in 614.
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Schuyler Colfax was an American politician. He was born in 1823 and died in 1885. In 1844 he made campaign speeches for Clay. In 1845 he established the St Joseph Valley Register which became a very influential Whig journal. He was secretary of the national Whig conventions of 1848 and 1852, and was in Congress as a Republican from 1855 until 1869. He was Speaker of the House from 1863 until 1869, and Vice-president from 1869 until 1873, but failed to obtain a re-nomination for the next term. He was charged, probably unjustly, with complicity in the 'Credit Mobilier' scandal of 1873.
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Scotch-Irish was a name used in America to designate immigrants from the north of Ireland, mostly Presbyterians of Scotch descent. Scots had been settled in the north of Ireland during the Plantation of Ulster in the reign of James I. Thence some went to America early. But the large emigrations were just after the famous siege of Londonderry in 1689, and again in 1718 and the years immediately succeeding. The largest settlements of them were made in the hilly parts of Pennsylvania, in the valley of the Shenandoah, and in the Carolinas. In all these, they occupied the highland regions, back from the coast, and formed a sturdy, independent, Presbyterian population. Jackson, John Calhoun, and many other eminent men were of this stock. In New England their chief settlements were at Londonderry, Antrim, etc., in New Hampshire, founded about 1719.
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Scott M Matheson was an American politician. He was a Democratic governor of Utah from 1977 until 1985.
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Seabury Ford was an American politician. He was a Whig governor of Ohio from 1849 until 1850.
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Sean O'Casey was an Irish playwright. He was born in 1884 at Dublin and died in 1966.
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Sebastian was king of Portugal. He was born in 1554 and died in 1578. In 1578 he led an expedition against the Moors, in which he was defeated and slain at the Battle of Alcazar in Morocco. Rumours afterwards arose that he was not dead, and these led to a number of impostors trying to claim the throne.
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Sebastian Brandt was a German author. He was born in 1458 at Strasburg in and died in 1521. He studied law at Basel, and wrote the famous German satire, the Narrenschiff, or Ship of Fools. The Narrenschiff is written in verse, and is a bold and vigorous satire
on the vices and follies of the age. It took the popular taste of its time, and was translated into all the languages of Europe. The Ship of Fools by Alexander Barclay (1509) is partly an imitation, partly a translation of it.
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Sebastian Cabot was an English navigator. He was born about 1474 at Bristol and died about 1557. He was the son of John Cabot, a Venetian pilot, who resided at Bristol, and was highly esteemed for his skill in navigation. John Cabot appears to have settled in Bristol about 1472, and to have died there about 1498, after having lived again for some time at Venice. In 1496 John Cabot received from Henry VII a commission giving him and his sons authority to sail for the purpose of discovering islands and countries then unknown; and in 1497, in company with Sebastian Cabot and two other sons, he discovered the mainland of North America, having visited Nova Scotia and Cape Breton Island.
In another voyage soon after Sebastian CAbot is said to have visited Labrador and Newfoundland. He subsequently entered the service of King Ferdinand of Spain, and in 1516 was to make an attempt to discover the north-west passage, an attempt relinquished owing to the king's death. In 1526, when in the Spanish service, he was put in charge of an expedition which visited Brazil and the river Plate. He now held the office of examiner of pilots under Charles V, and while in this post he compiled a famous map of the world published in 1544.
In 1547 he again settled in England, and received a pension from Edward VI He became life-governor of the Company of Merchant Adventurers, who under his advice made an attempt to discover a way to Cathay (China) by the northeast, an attempt having important results for English trade with Russia and Asia. He was among the first who noticed and investigated the variations of the compass.
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Sebastian Roch Nicolas Chamfort was a French writer and revolutionist. He was born in 1741 and died in 1794. By his success as dramatist, critic, and conversationalist he obtained a place in the French Academy, a pension, and a post at court. An intimate friend of Mirabeau, he threw himself heartily into the revolution, was secretary to the club of the Jacobins, was one of the first of the storming party in the attack on the Bastille, and having been employed by Roland in the Bibliotheque Nationale published the first twenty-six Tableaux Historiques de la Revolution. His cynical wit could not, however, restrain itself, and he was denounced and threatened with imprisonment. Rather than undergo it he inflicted fatal injuries upon himself, dying in 1794. He is seen at his best in the collection of bon mots published under the title of Chamfortiana.
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Sebastian Gryphius was a German printer. He was born in 1493 at Reutlingen, Swabia and died in 1556. He moved to Lyons and while there produced more than 300 printed works between 1528 and 1547.
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Sebastiano Gomez was a Spanish painter. He was born about 1616 at Seville and died about 1690. He was originally a slave of Murillo, but on account of his genius he was liberated by his master and received among his pupils.
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Sebastien Erard was a French musical-instrument maker. He was born in 1752 at Strasburg and died in 1831. He went to Paris at the age of eighteen, and together with his brother, Jean Baptiste, produced pianofortes superior to any that had previously been made in France. Afterwards he established a manufactory in London, and made considerable improvements in the mechanism of the harp.
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Sebastien Le Prestr de Vauban was a French soldier and engineer. He was born in 1633 at a Burgundian village, now in the deptarment of Yonne and died in 1707. He was educated at Semur and about 1650 entered the army. In charge of various siege operations during the war with Spain after the peace of 1659 he turned his attention to fortress work. Vauban's fame rests on the work he did for France during the wars carried on by Louis XIV. About forty fortresses were taken under his direction, and it was here that his genius was most fully shown, while he was responsible for the defences of almost every fortress on the French borders, the total number on which he was employed being put at over 160. He also invented the socket bayonet.
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Sebbi was joint ruler of the East Saxons in 663 until he became a monk.
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The Sebei are a people of eastern Uganda and western Kenya.
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Sebert was the first Christian king of the East Saxons. He reigned in 597.
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Seldon Connor was an American politician. He was a Republican governor of Maine from 1876 until 1879.
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Selectmen were the chief officers of New England towns. English parishes had their vestries, which were of two sorts, common vestries, composed of all the rate payers, and select vestries. In the latter, concerns were managed by select vestrymen. Hence the term selectmen, as used in New England, for the governing board of a town. The practice was found in Massachusetts as early as the issue of the 'Body of Liberties'. The selectmen acted under the orders of the town-meeting.
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The Selish were a native American Infdian tribe. Frequently incorrectly refered to as the Flatheads they were always friendly to the whites and originally resided on the Bitter Root or St Mary's River. In a treaty approved in 1859 they ceded all their lands to the United States, and in 1871 were removed to a reservation in northwest Montana.
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Selred was king of the East Angles in 713.
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The Selung are a people of eastern Bengal and the islands of the Mergui Archipelago.
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The Seminole are a north American tribe of Indians. They are an offshoot of the Choctaw Muskogee tribe. They settled in Florida in 1750, where about 300 still lived at the start of the 20th century, the remained in Indian Territory. In 1906 they came under agreement with the US government for the individual allotment of their tribal lands and absorption into American citizenship.
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The Semites are the peoples of the Middle East originally speaking a Semitic language, and traditionally said to be descended from Shem, a son of Noah in the Bible. Ancient Semitic peoples include the Hebrews, Ammonites, Moabites, Edomites, Babylonians, Assyrians, Chaldaeans, Phoenicians, and Canaanites. The Semitic peoples founded the monotheistic religions of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. They speak languages of the Hamito-Semitic branch of the Afro-Asiatic family.
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Semyon Mikhailovich Budenny was a Russian soldier. He was born in 1883 and died in 1973. A Cossack, he fought as a private in the Russo-Japanese War and as an NCO during the Great War. After the Russian Revolution he defeated the White Russians at the Battle of Tsaritsyn and served in the war with Poland in 1920. In 1935 he was appointed a marshal and in 1941 commander of the Red Armies in Ukraine.
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Semyon Konstantinovich Timoshenko was a Russian soldier. He was born in 1895 at Bessarabia and died in 1970. Conscripted into the Tsarist army in 1915, he joined the Revolutionary forces and took part in the defence of Tsaritsyn in 1917. In 1940 he became a Marshall of the Soviet Union and successfully operated against the Finns in the Russo-Finnish war. In 1941 he commanded the central sector Red Armies. Following the Second World War he commanded the Byelo Russian district from 1956 until his retirement in 1960.
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Lucius Annaeus Seneca was a Roman philosopher, dramatist and statesman. He was born in 4BC at Cordova and died in 65.
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The Senecas were a tribe of Iroquois Indians, who lived in Western New York. They allied themselves with Pontiac, destroying Venango, attacking Fort Niagara, and cutting off an army train near Devil's Hole in 1763. During the American Revolution they favoured the English. General Sullivan invaded their territory and devastated it. They made peace in 1784. They ceded a great part of their land, and in 1812 joined the American cause, though a part in Ohio joined the hostile tribes of the West, making peace in 1815. This band removed to Indian Territory in 1831, but the rest remained in New York.
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The Sensi are an extinct aboriginal people formerly living on the right bank of the Ucayali River in Peru. They became extinct during the 20th century.
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The Senussi are an Islamic sect inhabiting the desert regions of Libya.
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The Separatists were a religious sect which arose, chiefly in the North of England, about 1567, inspired by the exhortations of ministers who believed the gospel should be preached freely and 'the sacraments administered without idolatrous gear', and who, like Robert Brown, called upon the people 'to separate' from the Church of England. A number of them emigrated to Holland in 1608. Their chief strength was about Scrooby, in Nottinghamshire. A number of the Pilgrim Fathers belonged to this sect.
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The Separatists of Zoar were the inhabitants of a communist settlement in Ohio, called Zoar. They originated in Wurttemberg, whence, in 1817, a number of them emigrated to America to secure religious freedom. They were dissenters from the Established Church. Arriving at Philadelphia, they procured a tract of 6500 acres of land in Ohio, and founded the village of Zoar, choosing Joseph Baumeler as leader. It was not their original intention to form a communist society, but necessity compelled them to do so later. At first marriage was prohibited, but in 1830 this rule was abolished.
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The Sequani were a tribe of ancient Gaul, named after the river Sequana (the Seine) which rose in the north-western part of their territory. Their chief town was Vesontio (Besancon). They were subdued by the Romans under Caesar between 58 and 51 BC.
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The Serbs are Yugoslavia's largest ethnic group, found mainly in Serbia, but also in the neighbouring independent republics of Bosnia-Herzegovina and Croatia. Their language, generally recognized to be the same as Croat and hence known as Serbo-Croatian, belongs to the Slavic branch of the Indo- European family. It has more than 17 million speakers. The Serbs are predominantly Greek Orthodox Christians and write in a Cyrillic script.
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The Seres or Seri are a tribe of Mexican Indians formerly living in Sonora. The first study of them was undertaken in 1895 by M'Gee who described them, rather unscientifically, as 'the most debased of all the North American aborigines'.
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A serf was a cultivator of the soil who was attached to the estate on which he lived, was transferred with it, and could not quit it. Serfdom (a form of slavery) was one of the chief characteristics of the social and economic organisation of the Middle Ages. Serfdom continued in France until the revolution and in Germany until the 19th century. In Russia twenty-three million serfs were emancipated by Alexander II in 1863.
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Serge Mikhailovitch Soloviev was a Russian historian. He was born in 1820 at Moscow and died in 1879. Educated at Moscow, he travelled on the continent as a tutor from 1942 until 1844, and attended the lectures of the chief French and German historians of the time. In 1845 he published 'The Relations between Novgorod and the Grand Princes' and in 1847 'The History of the Relations Among the Russian Princes of the House of Rurick'. He was appointed professor of history at Moscow University, and became its rector. In 1851 he published the first of the 29 volumes of his 'History of Russia down to 1774', but died before its completion.
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Sergei Prokofiev was a Russian composer. He was born in 1891 in the Ukraine and died in 1953.
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Sergei Rachmaninov was a Russian composer. He was born in 1873 and died in 1943. He composed Concertos, preludes (Prelude in C sharp minor), symphonies.
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Sergei Ivanovitch Tanieiev was a Russian musician. He was born in 1856 at Vladimir and died in 1915. He studied at the Moscow conservatories where he became friends with Peter Tchaikovsky. A pianist, Sergei Tanieiev made his debut in 1875 and succeeded Peter Tchaikovsky as professor of harmony at Moscow conservatories in 1878, and held other teaching posts there until 1906.
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Sergi Pavlovich Diaghilev was a Russian impresario. He was born in 1872 and died in 1929.
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Sergius Stepniak (real name Sergius Michaelovitch Kravchinsky) was a Russian write and revolutionary. He was born in 1852 and died in 1895. At an early age he involved himself with the struggle for freedom in Russia and was arrested for his involvement with a known group of Nihilists. Placed under police surveillance he escaped to Switzerland and later moved to England where he became known as a writer and lecturer. He died at a railway level crossing at Chiswick on December the 23rd 1895.
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The Serjeant-at-Arms is an officer of the House of Commons who has responsibility for keeping order. If the speaker orders a member to leave, the Serjeant-at-Arms must see that the member leaves.
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Servius Sulpicius Galba was a Roman emperor. He was born in 3 BC and died in 69 AD. He was the successor of. He was made praetor in 20 AD, and afterwards governor of Aquitania, and in 33 AD was raised to the consulship through the influence of Livia Drusilla, the wife of Augustus. Caligula appointed him general in Germany, and Claudius sent him in 45 AD as proconsul to Africa, his services there obtaining him the honours of a triumph. He then lived in retirement until the middle of Nero's reign, when the emperor appointed him governor of Hispania Tarraconeusis, but soon after ordered him to be secretly assassinated. Galba revolted; the death of Nero followed and he himself was chosen emperor by the praetorian cohorts in Rome. He went directly to Rome, but soon made himself unpopular by cruelty and avarice, and he was assassinated in the forum in 69 AD at the age of seventy-two.
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Seth Padelford was an American politician. He was a Republican governor of Rhode Island from 1869 until 1873.
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Seth Warner was an American soldier. He was born in 1743 at Vermont and died in 1784. He was a leader of the inhabitants of the New Hampshire Grants in the conflicts of jurisdiction with the New York authorities, by whom he was outlawed. He was second in command at Ticonderoga. He captured Crown Point. He participated in Montgomery's campaign in Canada. He commanded at Hubbardston and was active at Bennington. He retired in 1782 on account of ill health.
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Seward was joint ruler of the East Saxons in 614.
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Sexburga was Queen of the West Saxons in 672.
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Sextos Pompeius Festus was a Roman grammarian. He lived during the 2nd or 3rd century, and was the author of an abridgment of a work by Verrius Flaccus called De Verborum Significatione, a kind of dictionary, which is very valuable for the information it contains about the Latin language. The work of Festus was still further abridged in the 8th century by Paulus Diaconus.
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Sextus Julius Frontinus was a Roman governor. He was born about 40 and died in 106. He was governor of Britain from 75 to 78, and distinguished himself in the wars of the Silures. He appears to have been twice consul, and was appointed by Nerva to superintend the aqueducts, on which he also wrote.
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Shadrach Bond was an American politician. He was a Democratic-Republican governor of Illinois from 1818 until 1822.
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The Shakers are an American religious sect, more properly called 'The United Society of Believers in Christ's Second Appearing'. The term Shakers was first applied to the Quakers, from whom the
Shakers split off under Ann Wardley in 1774. They believe God to be bisexual, reject the deity of Christ and practise communism.
Ann Wardley, born Ann Lee, was the daughter of a poor Manchester blacksmith. She married a smith by the name of Stanley and had four children, all of which died in infancy. She joined the sect of Jane Wardlaw and was subsequently arrested and jailed for brawling. While in prison she claimed to have seen a vision of Jesus Christ, and on coming out of prison told people of her vision and went to America with a few followers. She settled at Water Vilet in New York and established her own sect.
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The Shan are a people of the mountainous borderlands separating Thailand, Myanmar (Burma), and China. They are related to the Laos and Thais, and their language belongs to the Sino-Tibetan family.
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Shania Twain (real name Eilleen Regina Edwards) is a Canadian country and western singer. She was born in 1965 at Windsor, Ontario.
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Sharleen Spiteri is a Scottish musician. She was born in 1967 at Glasgow. Originally a hairdresser, she formed the band 'Texas' together with John McElhone in 1984 being lead singer in the band.
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Sharon Turner was an English historian. He was born in 1768 at London and died in 1847. He was an attorney by profession, but carried out researches among original Anglo-Saxon manuscripts. In 1805 he published the first volume of his history of England which he completed in 1839.
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Shaveling was a 14th century term for a young man admitted to the holy orders.
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The Shawnees were a tribe of American Algonquin Indians, after wandering about the east they were driven west by the Iroquois. They first aided the French in their final struggle until won over to the English. They joined Pontiac and from time to time continued hostilities until the peace of 1786. They took part in the Miami War, but, finally reduced by General Wayne, they submitted under the Treaty of 1795. In 1812 a part joined the English. The Missouri band ceded their lands in 1825, and the Ohio band in 1831. They became somewhat scattered, but the main band in Kansas ended tribal relations in 1854.
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The Shekawati are a people of India.
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Shelby Moore Cullom was an American politician. He was born in 1829. He was chosen Speaker in the Illinois Legislature in 1860, was a member of the war commission at Cairo in 1862 and a member of Congress from 1865 to 1871. He was a Republican governor of Illinois from 1877 until 1883 and as chairman of the Illinois delegation at the Republican convention he placed General Grant in nomination in 1872 and General Logan in 1884; and from 1883 to 1897 was US Senator.
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Sherard Osborn was a British admiral. He was born in 1822 at Madras and died in 1875. Having served in China from 1841 to 1842 he was appointed to command one of the ships of the first Franklin search expedition, and on his return published 'Stray Leaves from an Arctic Journal' in 1852. In 1852 until 1855 he again went to the Arctic. During the Crimean War he led a flotilla of light craft in the Sea of Azov, causing an immense amount of destruction. In the second China War he distinguished himself.
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Sherman Adams was an American politician. He was a Republican governor of New Hampshire from 1949 until 1953.
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Sherman W Tribbitt was an American politician. He was a Democratic governor of Delaware from 1973 until 1977.
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The Sherpa are a Tibetan people of north east Nepal, and adjoining parts of China and India. Buddhists by religion, the Sherpa who live around Mount Everest have an international reputation as mountain climbers and guides. The Sherpa are related to, and similar to the Bhotias, but are more a farming people rather than pure traders, as the nomadic Bhotias are. Sherpa homes are two-storey. The lower level being used as a warehouse to store goods for trading and farm animals, the upper floor being the living quarters. Traditional Sherpa houses are devoid of furniture except carpets to sit upon, and have a fireplace in the middle of the floor and carved window frames.
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Shikh Muhammad Abdullah ('The Lion of Kashmir') was a Kashmiri politician. He was born in 1905 at Soura and did in 1982. He was a major protagonist in the Kashmiri struggle for independence from India, actively encouraging the Muslim struggle against the Hindu maharajah. In 1948 he was appointed Prime Minister of Kashmir, before being imprisoned in 1953 for treason and encouraging Kashmiri independence from India. He was released in 1962 and continued to campaign for Kashmiri independence, persuading the Indian government to grant Kashmir some autonomy.
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The Shilluk are a Sudanese people living mainly on the west bank of the Nile. They are remarkable for not sitting to rest, but rather for standing on one leg for hours at a time.
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Shoeblack was a Victorian name for someone who shined strangers shoes for a living. In Victorian London shoeblacks were licensed and brigades were established, distinguished by their red uniform, to provide employment to 'poor and honest boys'. The first London shoeblack brigade was the Ragged Schools brigade of Saffron-Hill. In 1888 itt was reported that the average earning for a shoeblack brigade boy was in the region of ten shillings a week.
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Sholem Aleichem is the pen name of the Ukrainian writer Solomon Rabinowitz. He was born in 1859 and died in 1916. A former rabbi, he left Russia in 1905 and travelled to the USA and Switzerland. The film Fiddler on the Roof is based on his works about small east European Jewish towns.
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The Shona are a Bantu-speaking people of south Africa, comprising approximately 80% of the population of Zimbabwe. They also occupy the land between the Save and Pungure rivers in Mozambique, and smaller groups are found in South Africa, Botswana, and Zambia. The
Shona are mainly farmers, living in scattered villages. The Shona language belongs to the Niger- Congo family.
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The Shoshone or Snake Indians, were various bands of American Indians, chief among which were the Buffalo Baters on Wind River, and the Tookarika on the Salmon. Some of the bands near Humboldt River and Great Salt Lake began hostilities in 1849. In 1862 California volunteers nearly exterminated the Hokandikah. Treaties with various bands followed in 1863, 1864 and 1865. Hostilities were afterward renewed for a period. The Government attempted to collect the whole nation, and they were assigned various reservations.
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Sidney Bechet was an American jazz musician. He was born in 1897 at New Orleans and died in 1959. Originally a jazz clarinet player, he took up the soprano saxophone in 1919 and was the first significant saxophone players in jazz.
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Sir Sidney Colvin was an English literary critic and art publisher. He was born in 1845 and died in 1927. He was Slade Professor of Fine Art at Cambridge from 1873 to 1885 and Keeper of Prints and Drawings at the British Museum from 1884 to 1912.
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Sidney Gilchrist Thomas was a British metallurgist. He was born in 1850 at London and died in 1885. He early applied himself in his spare time to the study of chemistry. From this he was led to the important invention of his life, the elimination of phosphorus in the Bessemer and Siemens-Martin processes of converting pig-iron into stee1. By careful study he evolved the basic lining to the Bessemer converter, and it was recognized that the invention was epoch-making. He was awarded the Bessemer gold medal of the Iron and Steel Institute in 1883.
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Sidney Godolphin, Earl of Godolphin, was an English politician. He was born about 1635 in Cornwall and died in 1712. Under Charles II, he was one of those who voted for the exclusion of the Duke of York from the throne in 1680. He nevertheless retained office under that monarch, as he did also under William III, with whom he had long been in correspondence. During the reign of Anne he was appointed lord high-treasurer of England, and in this office did much to improve the public credit, and check corruption in the administration of the public funds. In 1706 he was made Earl of Godolphin, and four years afterwards was obliged to retire from office. He was a man of great business capacity, but his treasonable correspondence with James while he held an office of trust under William of Orange is a serious blot upon his character.
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Sidney Herbert (Lord Herbert of Lea) was an English statesman. He was born in 1810 and died in 1861. The son of the eleventh Earl of Pembroke, he was educated at Harrow and Oxford, and was Conservative member of parliament for South Wiltshire from 1832 until shortly before his death. He was secretary to the admiralty under Peel in 1841, and in 1845 was made secretary for war, but became a convert to free-trade, and left office with Peel in 1846. In 1852 he became war secretary in the Aberdeen cabinet, and retained it until the dissolution of the ministry in 1855. For a short time he was colonial secretary under Palmerston, and in 1859 became once more secretary for war. Early in 1861 he was transferred to the House of Lords.
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Sidney J Catts was an American politician. He was a Prohibition governor of Florida from 1917 until 1921.
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Sidney Lanier was an American poet and author. He was born in 1842 at Macon, Georgia and died in 1881. He served with the Confederacy during the American Civil War and wrote an account of his experiences in 'Tiger Lilies' published in 1867.
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Sidney P Osborn was an American politician. He was a Democratic governor of Arizona from 1941 until 1948.
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Sidney Perham was an American politician. He was a Republican governor of Maine from 1871 until 1874.
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Sidney Rigdon was an American Mormon. He was born in 1793 and died in 1876. He was one of the propagators of the doctrine of the Mormons, and was one of the presidents of the church. He refused to recognize Brigham Young as leader of the church, and was excommunicated.
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Sidney Sanders McMath was an American politician. He was a Democratic governor of Arkansas from 1949 until 1953.
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Sidney James Webb was an English social reformer. He was born in 1859 and died in 1947.
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Siegfried Sassoon was an English writer. He was born in 1886 and died in 1967. He wrote poetry during the Great War which revealed the horror and wasteful destruction of the war.
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Sieur de La Salle (Robert Cavelier) was a French explorer. He was born in 1643 at Rouen and died in 1687. In 1669 he emigrated to Canada, and began the series of his remarkable journeys in the West. He visited Lake Michigan and the Illinois River, but whether he at this early stage saw the Mississippi is a disputed problem. In 1673 he received a grant of the station at Port Frontenac (now Kingston). He was again in France in 1677, but the next year was back in Canada and had reached Niagara. He ascended the chain of lakes to Mackinaw, thence up Lake Michigan and down the Illinois River to Peoria. Disappointments followed; but he was able to renew the canoe voyage, descend the Illinois and Mississippi to its mouth, which he reached in April, 1682, and to claim the entire region for Louis XIV. Returning to France, he organized an expedition which, in 1684, sailed directly for the mouth of the great river. But the explorers landed by mistake at Matagorda Bay, and after harassing wanderings Sieur de La Salle was murdered by his followers within the limits of Texas.
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Sigebert was joint ruler of the East Saxons in 614. Sigebert was king of the East Angles in 629.
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Sigebert II (Sigebert the little) was king of the East Saxons in 623.
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Sigebert III (Sigebert the good) was king of the East Saxons in 655 until he was put to death.
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Sigebright was king of the West Saxons in 754. Having murdered his friend Cumbran, the governor of Hampshire, he was himself slain by one of Cumbran' s retainers.
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Sigenard was king of the East Saxons in 693.
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Sigered was king of the East Saxons in 799.
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Sigeric was king of the East Saxons in 799. He died while on a pilgrimage to Rome.
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Sigher was joint ruler of the East Saxons in 663.
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Sigrid Undset was a Norwegian writer. She was born in 1882 and died in 1949. She won the Nobel prize for literature in 1928.
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Sigurd Anderson was an American politician. He was a Republican governor of South Dakota from 1951 until 1955.
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Sigurd Snogoje was king of Denmark in 794.
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The Sikhs are a group of people from Punjab who follow the religion of Baba Nanak.
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Silas A Holcomb was an American politician. He was a Fusion governor of Nebraska from 1895 until 1899.
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Silas Deane was an American statesman. He was born in 1737 at Groton, Connecticut and died in 1789. He was a member of the Connecticut Committee of Correspondence, and afterward a Representative in the Continental Congress. In 1776 he was sent to France to purchase supplies for the Confederacy. Vergennes, the French Minister of Foreign Affairs, referred him to Beaumarchais, a secret agent of the French Government, and with him Silas Deane negotiated. He was accused of extravagance and dishonesty, chiefly by his colleague, Arthur Lee. Silas Deane, Lee and Benjamin Franklin negotiated treaties of amity and commerce with France, which were signed on February the 6th 1778. Silas Deane was recalled the same year at the instigation of Lee. Congress refused him a hearing for some time and finally required a full statement. Returning to France for the necessary papers, he found himself unpopular there, and had to retire to Holland. He died just as he was re-embarking from England for America in 1789.
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Silas Garber was an American politician. He was a Republican governor of Nebraska from 1875 until 1879.
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Silas H Jennison was an American politician. He was a Whig governor of Vermont from 1835 until 1841.
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Silas H Stringham was an American sailor. He was born in 1798 and died in 1876. He entered the US navy in 1809. He served in the USS President during the engagements with the Little Belt and Belvidere. He served in the Algerine War in 1815. He was executive officer of the USS Hornet from 1821 to 1824 and captured the pirate ship Moscow. He commanded the USS Ohio at the bombardment of Vera Cruz in 1847, and the squadron which, assisted by the military force under General Butler, reduced Fort Hatteras and Fort Clark in 1861.
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Silas Woodson was an American politician. He was a Democratic governor of Missouri from 1873 until 1875.
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Silas Wright was an American politician. Educated at Middlebury College, he became a lawyer and influential politician in the State of New York. He was a member of the State Senate, and Congressman from 1837 to 1829. For the next four years he was Comptroller of New York. Then, from 1833 until 1844, he was US Senator, and one of the Democratic leaders in the Senate. From 1845 to 1847 he was Governor of the State. One of his acts was the calling out the militia to suppress the Anti-Renters. The local Democracy was at that time engaged in bitter factional fights, and Governor Silas Wright was defeated for re-election in 1846.
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Silvanus Phillips Thompson was an English scientist. He was born in 1851 at York and died in 1916. Educated at Bootham School, the Institute, Pontefract, and the Royal School of Mines, he was professor of experimental physics at University College, Bristol from 1876 until 1885, and principal and professor of physics in the City and Guilds Technical College, Finsbury from 1885 until 1916. A leading physicist of his time, he published standard works on electricity and dynamo-electric machinery.
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Simeon of Durham was an English chronicler of the 12th century. He wrote Annals of England to the reign of Henry I, particularly valuable for events connected with the north of England. They were continued by John of Hexham.
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Simeon S Pennewill was an American politician. He was a Republican governor of Delaware from 1909 until 1913.
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Simeon S Willis was an American politician. He was a Republican governor of Kentucky from 1943 until 1947.
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Simon B Buckner was an American politician. He was a Democratic governor of Kentucky from 1887 until 1891.
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Simon Bamberger was an American politician. He was a Democratic governor of Utah from 1917 until 1921.
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Simon Bar-cochba was a Jewish dissenter. He raised a revolt, and made himself master of Jerusalem about 132 AD, and of about fifty fortified places. Hadrian sent to Britain for Julius Severus, one of his ablest generals, who gradually regained the different forts and then took and destroyed Jerusalem. Bar-cochba retired to a mountain fortress, and perished in the assault of it by the Romans three years after, about 135.
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Simon Bernard was a French soldier and engineer. He was born in 1779 and died in 1836. After going to the USA with Lafayette in 1824 he became the chief engineer in the US Army and was responsible for the planning and construction of Fortress Monroe.
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Simon Bolivar ('The Liberator') was a Venezuelan patriot. He was born in 1783 at Caracas and died in 1830. Educated at Madrid, after travelling in Europe he returned to Caracas in 1801 and lived there until 1804 before, upon the death of his wife, revisiting Europe before returning to Venezuela via the USA in 1809 determined to make Venezuela an independent republic. Having joined the patriotic party among his countrymen he shared in the first unsuccessful efforts to throw off the Spanish yoke. In 1812 he joined the patriots of New Granada in their struggle, and having defeated the Spaniards in several actions he led a small force into his own country of Venezuela, and entered the capital, Caracas, as victor and liberator, on August the 4th, 1813.
But the success of the revolutionary party was not of long duration. Simon Bolivar was beaten by General Boves, and before the end of the year the royalists were again masters of Venezuela. Simon Bolivar next received from the Congress of New Granada the command of an expedition against Bogota, and after the successful transfer of the seat of government to that city retired to Jamaica.
Having again returned to Venezuela he was able to rout the royalists under Morillo, and, after a brilliant campaign, effected in 1819 a junction with the forces of the New Granada republic. The battle of Bojaca which followed gave him possession of Santa Fe and all New Granada, of which he was appointed president and captain-general. A law was now passed by which the Republics of Venezuela and New Granada were to be united in a single state, as the Republic of Colombia, and Bolivar was elected the first president.
In 1822 he went to the aid of Peru, and was made dictator, an office held by him until 1825, by which time the country had been completely freed from Spanish rule. In 1825 he visited Upper Peru, which formed itself into an independent republic named Bolivia, in honour of Simon Bolivar. In Colombia a civil war arose between his adherents and the faction opposed to him, but Simon Bolivar was confirmed in the presidency in 1826, and again in 1828, and continued to exercise the chief authority until May, 1830, when he resigned. He died at Carthagena on the 17th December, 1830. One of the departments of Colombia is named after him, as are also a state of the republic Venezuela, and the town Ciudad Bolivar.
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Simon Bradstreet was colonial Governor of Massachusetts. He was born in 1603 and died in 1697. He went to Massachusetts in 1630 and in 1679 was appointed Governor, remaining in the post until 1686 and again after Andros' recall until 1692. He opposed the witchcraft delusion.
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Simon Cameron was an American politician. He was born in 1799 and died in 1889. He worked at the printers trade in his boyhood and youth. In 1822 he edited a newspaper in Harrisburg. He soon became interested and acquired wealth in banking and railroad construction and was for a time Adjutant-General of Pennsylvania. He was US Senator from Pennsylvania from 1845 until 1849, acting with the Democrats. Upon the repeal of the Missouri Compromise in 1854 he broke with that party and joined the Republican party upon its organization, by which he was elected to the US Senate in 1857. He was appointed by President Lincoln his first Secretary of War, a post he resigned in 1862 and was appointed Minister to Russia. He was again US Senator from 1867 until 1877.
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Simon de Montfort was an English statesman and soldier. He was born in 1208 and died in 1265 at the battle of Evesham. He inherited the earldom of Leicester in 1232, and in 1238 married a younger sister of Henry III. He took a leading part among the barons opposing the king, and on May the 13th 1264 defeated and captured the king at Lewes, spending the next year as dictator of England, summoning in January 1265 parliament - often called the first parliament. Other barons, jealous of Montfort' power defected to the King and together they defeated Montfort at the battle of Evesham on the 4th of August 1265.
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Simon Fraser was a British soldier. He was born in 1729 and died in 1777. A British brigadier-general, who in 1776 had commanded at Three Rivers, he had command of Burgoyne's right wing in his advance upon New York during the American war of Independence. He won the victory of Hubbardton on July the 7th, 1777, but was mortally wounded in the battle of Saratoga, on October the 7th.
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Simon Girty was an American patriot. He was born in 1750 at Kentucky and died in 1815. A Kentucky loyalist, he led the Indians in their depredations during the American war of Independence and in the War of 1812, committing many atrocious deeds.
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Simon Kenton was an American pioneer. He was born in 1755 at Kentucky and died in 1836. He served as a scout in the colonial army until 1778. He commanded a Kentucky battalion from 1793 to 1794. He was engaged in the Battle of the Thames in 1813.
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Simon Marks was a British chain-store magnet. He was born in 1888 and died in 1964. The son of a Polish immigrant, Michael Marks, who together with Tom Spencer started a number of 'penny bazaars' in 1887. Simon Marks entered the business in 1907 and built up a chain of more than 200 stores and started a democratic revolution in dress for men and women.
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Simon Newcomb was an American astronomer. He was born in 1835 and died in 1909. He was noted for his tables of celestial bodies and astronomical constants.
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Simon P Hughes was an American politician. He was a Democratic governor of Arkansas from 1885 until 1889.
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Simon Snyder was an American politician. He was a Democratic-Republican governor of Pennsylvania from 1808 until 1817.
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Simon Stevinus was a Dutch mathematician. He was born in 1548 at Bruges and died in 1620. He was one of the first mathematicians to deal with the properties of regular and semi-regular polyhedra, and he laid down certain of the fundamental principles of mechanics.
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Simone Martini was an Italian painter. He was born in 1283 and died in 1344.
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Simone Arturo St Bon was an Italian admiral. He was born in 1823 at Chambery and died in 1892. He modernised the Italian navy, advocating the use of large battleships. Under Minghetti he was minister of marine, resigning in 1876 to resume active service, but returning to office in 1891. He served during the Crimean War at Ancona in 1860 and at the siege of Gaeta, and in the naval battle off Lissa in 1866.
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Sin-Itiro Tomonaga was a Japanese theoretical physicist. He was born in 1906 at Tokyo and died in 1979. He developed the theory of quantum electrodynamics (QED) and developed methods for calculating the interaction between electrons, positrons and photons (as did also Feynman and Schwinger). He graduated from Kyoto University in 1929 and became professor of physics at the University of Tokyo in 1941 and President of the University 1956. In 1965 he was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics.
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Sinclair Lewis was an American novelist. He was born in 1885 and died in 1951.
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The Sindhi are the majority ethnic group living in the Pakistani province of Sind. The Sindhi language is spoken by about 15 million people.
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The Sinhalese are the majority ethnic group of Sri Lanka (70% of the population). Sinhalese is the official language of Sri Lanka; it belongs to the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European family, and is written in a script derived from the Indian Pali form. The Sinhalese are Buddhists.
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The Sioux, or Dakota Indians are an American Indian tribe. They first dwelt near the head waters of the Mississippi. Later several bands wandered to the Missouri, and some remained near the St Peter's.
They aided the English in the War of 1812, but soon after made peace with the American Government. In 1837 they ceded to the United States all their lands east of the Mississippi, and in 1851 made further grants. Hostilities arose in 1854, but the Indians were defeated in 1855, and peace followed. In 1862 a general uprising took place, and a large number of whites and Indians were killed. They were finally conquered, and many bands fled to Dakota. In 1863 the Minnesota Sioux were removed to Crow Creek, and some bands fled to British territory. A few bands continued hostilities. An unsatisfactory treaty was made with the Sioux by General Sherman in 1868. Sitting Bull and other chieftains were unreconciled. On May the 15th, 1876, General Custer and 1100 men were wiped out at the Battle of Little Big Horn at the Little big Horn River by a force of 9000 Sioux.
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Sir Charles Vere Francis Townshend was an English soldier and politician. He was born in 1861 and died in 1924. He entered the Royal Marines in 1881, and saw service in the Suakin operations and in the Nile Expedition. In 1886 he transferred to the Indian Staff Corps, and in 1891 accompanied the expedition against the Hunza and Nagar tribes. He came to prominence following his defence of Chitral for which he was awarded the CB. He was at Atbara and Khartoum in 1898 and served in the South African War from 1899 until 1900, when he was transferred to the British army, joining the Royal Fusiliers. After various commands in India, he became major-general in 1911 and commander of a territorial division in 1912. He returned to India in 1913.
Early in 1915 he was sent to Mesopotamia at the head of a division, and after gaining several victories, had to retreat to Kut, which he defended for five months.. Taken prisoner after the fall of Kut he was removed to Constantinople, and was interned in Prinkipo Island.
He was knighted in 1916 and resigned from the army in 1920, becoming an independent member of parliament for the Wrekin division, joining the Conservative Party in 1922.
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Sitting Bull was a medicine man and leader of the Hunkpapa Sioux. He was born in 1831 and died in 1890. He brought together the sub-tribes of the Sioux and refused to sign treaties which would hand over the sacred Black Hills of South Dakota to the Americans. He was one of the Sioux who defeated General Custer at the Battle of Little Bighorn.
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Sixtus I was bishop of Rome from 115 until 125.
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The Skalds were ancient Scandinavian poets, who composed poems in honour of the distinguished men and their prowess, and recited or sang them on public occasions.
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George Castriota (Skanderbeg) was an Albanian hero. He was born in 1403 and died in 1468. In 1414 the Turks invaded Albania and captured his uncle's fortress. Castriota was taken to Constantinople and given the Turkish name and title of Iskandar Bey, which was later corrupted into Skanderbeg. In 1443 Albania revolted and Castriota returned to free the country.
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A sky marshal is a plain-clothed armed guard placed on an aircraft to defend against hijackers. Sky marshals first originated in the USA and were quickly adopted by the Israeli airline El Al. Typically a sky marshal is armed with a low-velocity semi-automatic pistol which will not puncture the aeroplane's fuselage when discharged.
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The Slavs are an imaginary grouping of different Indo-European peoples in central and east Europe, the Balkans, and parts of north Asia, who happen to speak closely related Slavonic languages, these include the Venedae, Bulgars and Serbs. There is no homogenous Slav race. The ancestors of the 'Slavs' are believed to have included the Sarmatians and Scythians. Moving west from Central Asia, they settled in east and south east Europe during the 2nd and 3rd millennia BC.
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Sledda was a son of Ella and king of the East Saxons in 587.
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The Slovene are the Slavic people of Slovenia and parts of the Austrian Alpine provinces of Styria and Carinthia. There are 1.5-2 million speakers of Slovene, a language belonging to the South Slavonic branch of the Indo- European family. The Slovenes use the Roman alphabet and the majority belong to the Roman Catholic Church.
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A smatchet is an inconsequential or unimportant person.
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Smith Thompson was an American jurist. He was born in 1768 and died in 1843. He was a Judge of the New York Supreme Court from 1802 to 1818. He was Secretary of the Navy in Monroe's Cabinet from 1818 to 1823, and a Justice of the US Supreme Court from 1823 to 1843.
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Sneck-drawer was an old term for someone who stealthily opened doors (draws a sneck), and by extension then came to be applied to someone crafty, flattering or sly.
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In old English law, a socman was a person holding a tenure by socage. A socman was distinguished from one holding tenure by the rendering of sporadic military service by the fact that he rendered a specific and regular service, and he stood in a class superior to the villein; thus petty serjeantry was a form of socage tenure. Free, simple or common socage implied that the socman rendered some service of an honourable nature, as commonly by the acknowledgement of fealty and a fixed annual payment. Villein socage left the socman with a fixed and definite, but meaner, service for his tenure. From the free socmen of early times, the descent of the mediaeval yeoman class has been traced, and they became gradually merged in the freeholder class of tenants.
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Socrates was a Greek philosopher. He was born in 469 BC and died in 399 BC. The son of Sophroniscus and Phaenarete he is said to have been trained as a sculptor. He married Xanthippe and had three sons.
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Sojourner Truth was an American social reformer. She was born in 1775 and died in 1883. A former slave, she was freed from slavery in New York in 1817 and became an effective lecturer in politics, temperance, women's rights and slavery.
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Solly Zuckerman was a South African-born British zoologist, educationalist, and establishment figure. He was born in 1904 at Cape Town and died in 1993. He did extensive research on primates, publishing a number of books that became classics in their field, including 'The Social Life of Monkeys and Apes' published in 1932 and 'Functional Affinities of Man, Monkeys and Apes' published in 1933. He was chief scientific adviser to the British government from 1964 to 1971. He was demonstrator in anatomy at the university of Cape Town, and afterwards came to London in the 1920s and soon established himself as a leading anatomist with the Zoological Society. He joined the faculty of Oxford University in 1934 and during the Second World War, as a government scientific adviser, investigating the biological effects of bomb blasts. He was professor of anatomy at Birmingham University from 1946 to 1968, and was created a peer in 1971. As chief scientific adviser to the government during Harold Wilson's premiership, he had his own office within
the Cabinet Office, with direct access to the prime minister himself. He published his autobiography 'From Apes to Warlords' in 1978.
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Solomon was the third King of the Hebrews. He lived around 960BC.
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Solomon Foot was an American politician. He was born in 1802 and died in 1866. He was a member of the Vermont Legislature in 1833 and 1836, and Speaker in 1837, 1838 and 1847. He was a Whig Congressman from 1843 to 1847, and Senator from 1857 to 1866.
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Solyman The Magnificent (Suleiman the Magnificent) was a Sultan of Turkey. He was born in 1495 and died in 1566. A son of Selim I, he inherited his father's ambitions and valour, and on ascending the throne in 1520, having crushed rebellions in Syria and Egypt, began a series of campaigns against the Western powers, taking Belgrade in 1521 and Rhodes in 1522. In 1526 he dealt a major defeat upon the Christian armies of Louis II and in 1532 advanced to within a few kilometres of Venice, but was beaten back by Charles V.
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The Somali are a Hamitic people of east Africa. They are a stalwart, lithe, dark-skinned people standing at slightly less than the average European height, with long faces, thin lips, a straight nose and ringlet hair. Traditionally the Somali were pastoral nomads living in patriarchal conditions of an Arabian origin. Coastal dwelling Somalis were traditionally agriculturalists and fishermen. The British army regiment the King's African Rifles were recruited from the Somalis.
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The Songhai (Sonrhai) are a Negroid people of Mali and the Niger basin in the southern Sahara region of Africa. They are a tall, slender race, deep brown in colouration with thin lips, a straight nose and black ringlet hair. As a race they have over the years intermixed with Libyan and Arab peoples.
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Sonny Barger is an American motorcyclist. He was born in 1938. He was a founder of the Oakland Hell's Angels Motorcycle Club in 1957.
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Sophia was Electress of Hanover. She was born in 1630 at the Hague and died in 1714. The twelfth child of the Elector Palatine and his wife Elizabeth, daughter of James I, she was born at the Hague while her parents were in exile. In 1658 she married Ernest Augustus, a duke of Brunswick, who in 1692 became Elector of Hanover. As neither William III nor his wife Anne, who would succeed him to the throne, had any children, and in its anxiety to exclude Roman Catholic descendants of Charles I from the English throne, Parliament settled the crown upon the Protestant Sophia and her heirs. Sophia, however, died shortly before Anne, and her eldest son was crowned George I.
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Sophia Dorothea was a German princess and English queen. She was born in 1666 and died in 1726. The daughter of George William, a prince of Brunswick-Lunenburg, she was compelled to marry her cousin George, the future Elector of Hanover and king George I of England. Relations between her and her husband deteriorated, and after the mysterious disappearance of Philip von Konigsmark at the palace at Hanover in 1694, Sophia Dorothea was accused of intrigue, divorced and was imprisoned near Zell.
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Sophie Ristaud Cottin (Madame Cottin) was a French novelist. She was born in 1773 and died in 1807. In 1790 she married Monsieur Cottin, a banker of Bordeaux, who died in 1793, and thenceforth she followed literature. Her best-known work is Elizabeth, or the Exiles of Siberia; other novels are Claire d'Albe, Malvina, Amelie, and Mathilde.
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Sophocles was a Greek dramatist. He was born in 496 BC at Colonus and died in 406 BC. The son of a wealthy metal worker, Sophocles received the education of an Athenian gentleman. When he was fifteen he was chosen to lead the chorus which sang the song of triumph in celebration of the victory over the Persians off Salamis. He went on to win prizes for his plays, and was a favourite of the Athenian stage, writing perhaps some 130 plays.
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Sophy Weller was an English prostitute. In 1837 she was spotted in a Gray's Inn Road brothel in London wearing a stolen feather boa, by PC Jonathan Whicher, who promptly arrested her and she was subsequently tried and convicted for the theft, being transported as a consequence.
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The Sotho are a large ethnic group in southern Africa, numbering about 7 million and living mainly in Botswana, Lesotho, and South Africa. The Sotho are predominantly farmers, living in small village groups. They speak a variety of closely related languages belonging to the Bantu branch of the Niger-Congo family. With English,
Sotho is the official language of Lesotho.
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A Sovereign is a supreme ruler, especially it is a term applied to a monarch.
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The Spaldingas (people of Spald) were an ancient British tribe inhabiting part of Lincolnshire and east Yorkshire prior to the Norman Conquest. They gave their name to the town of Spalding in Lincolnshire and the village of Spaldington in east Yorkshire.
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Spartacus was a Thracian soldier who commanded the insurgents in the third Servile War of Rome. Originally a shepherd, he was taken prisoner by the Romans and trained in the gladiators' school at Capua, from whence in 73 BC he escaped with seventy others to the crater of Vesuvius. Having scattered a blockading force, he gathered an army of runaway gladiators and slaves, estimated at around 100,000 men, and devastated Italy from one end to the other until in 71 BC he was defeated and killed by Marcus Crassus.
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Speaker is the term given to the presiding officer of the British House of Commons. The first person to receive the title was Sir Thomas Hungerford, speaker in 1377. he and his successors were called speakers because it was their duty to voice the wishes of the members of the house to the king. The speaker is elected by the members of the house, and receives a salary and a residence. He or she takes precedence of all commoners in the kingdom, represents the House of Commons on various ceremonial and other occasions, and is made a viscount and pensioned on retirement. The speaker takes no part in party politics during his or her tem in office. In the House of Lords the position of speaker is held by the lord chancellor.
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Spencer Fulleron Baird was an American naturalist. He was born in 1823 and died in 1887. He was for a long while assistant secretary, and latterly secretary, of the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, and was also chief government commissioner of fish and fisheries. He wrote much on natural history, his chief works being The Birds of North America (in conjunction with John Cassin); The Mammals of North America; Review of American Birds in the Smithsonian Institution; and (with Messrs. Brewer and Ridgeway), History of North American Birds.
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Spencer Compton Cavendish, eighth Duke of Devonshire, long known as Marquis of Hartington, was an English statesman. He was born in 1833 and died in 1908. The eldest surviving son of the seventh Duke of Devonshire, he succeeded to the dukedom in 1891. He was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he graduated in 1854.
He was attached, in 1856, to Earl Granville's Russian mission, and in 1857 was elected as a Liberal one of the members for North Lancashire. In 1863 he was for a short time a lord of the admiralty, and he then became under-secretary for war, being raised to cabinet rank as war secretary in 1866. In 1868 he lost his seat for North Lancashire, but became postmaster-general under Mr. Gladstone, and was returned for the Radnor boroughs. In 1871 he was appointed chief secretary for Ireland. He went out with the Gladstone ministry in 1874, and on Mr. Gladstone's retirement he became the leader of the Liberal party.
On the fall of the Conservative government in 1880 he was elected for North-East Lancashire, and became secretary for India under Mr. Gladstone, being transferred to the war office in 1882. In the general election of 1885 he was returned for the Rossendale division of Lancashire. He strenuously opposed Mr. Gladstone's Home Rule Scheme of 1886, and became the leader of the Liberal Unionists, but long declined to take office in the cabinet. In 1895, however, he became Lord President of the Council, and in 1900-1902 he was president of the newly-instituted Board of Education. In 1903 he withdrew from co-operating with Mr. Balfour as prime minister, mainly on account of his disapproval of the fiscal changes proposed by Mr. Chamberlain, and accepted the position of head of the Free-Trade Unionists.
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Spessard L Holland was an American politician. He was a Democratic governor of Florida from 1941 until 1945.
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Spike Lee is an American film producer and director. He was born in Atlanta, Georgia and attended Morehouse College in Atlanta and the Tisch School of the Arts at New York University, where he received his Master of Fine Arts degree in film production. He is one of the most prominent and outspoken filmmakers at work in America during the late 20th century. Crooklyn was his seventh feature film. His previous film, 'Malcolm X' produced in 1992 starring Denzel Washington became an international cultural event. Spike Lee's first feature, 'She's Gotta Have It' was one of the revelations of the 1986 Cannes Film Festival and firmly established him as the leader of a new wave of African-American filmmakers. With subsequent projects, Spike Lee continued to challenge audiences with controversial, thought-provoking social issues. His films, 'School Daze' in 1988, 'Do The Right Thing' in 1989, ' Mo'Better Blues' in 1990 and 'Jungle Fever' in 1991 all bear the imprint of a pace-setting stylist whose works have stirred up both public debate and deep personal feelings.
Spike Lee has also produced and directed music videos for such world-renowned artists as Miles Davis, Tracy Chapman, Branford Marsalis, Anita Baker, Public Enemy and Bruce Hornsby. Other music videos include work for Gangstarr and Naughty by Nature as well as the video for Arrested Development taken from the Malcolm X soundtrack. Lee's first television commercials were made in 1988 for Nike's Air Jordan. In them, Spike Lee appears as the character Mars Blackmon from She's Gotta Have It on the court with all universe Michael Jordan. Spike Lee has also directed a popular series of adverts for Levi's Button-Fly 501 jeans, as well as several Art Spot short films for MTV and a short film featuring Branford Marsalis and Diahnne Abbott for Saturday Night Live. He has written five books on the making of his films.
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Spiridion Tricoupis was a Greek statesman. He was born in 1788 at Missolonghi and died in 1873. Educated in France and England, he returned to the Ionian Islands then under British rule and took an active part in the war of liberation. After the accession of King Otto he was twice ambassador in London and again in 1850 after the difficulties with Great Britain which had led to the blockade of the Piraeus. He repeatedly held office in the Greek government before his death.
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Spiro T Agnew was an American politician. He was a Republican governor of Maryland from 1967 until 1969.
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A squire was an armour-bearer, and next in degree to a knight. He was entitled to coat armour and was exempt from jury duties.
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St Adalbert was a missionary in north Germany and Poland. He was born in 955 and died in 997. He was martyred in Bremen.
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St Adamnan was an Irish clergyman and historian. He was born in Ireland about 624 and died about 703 or 704. He was elected abbot of lona in 679. He is best known from his Life of St Columba, valuable as throwing light on the early ecclesiastical history of Scotland.
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St Agnes is the patron Saint of young virgins. St Agnes was a Roman Virgin and martyr to the Christian faith in the reign of Diocletian. At the age of twelve she was publicly humiliated and, refusing to marry the prefect of Rome and adhering to her religion, she was set to be burned alive, however, the fire going out Aspasius, who had set to watch the execution, drew his sword and beheaded her. Christians celebrate her feast day on January the 21st.
British folk lore has it that upon St Agnes night (January 21st) one may take a row of pins, and pull out every one, one after another. Saying a pater-noster, stick a pin in your sleeve and that night you will dream of him or her whom you shall marry.
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St Aidan was Bishop of Lindisfarne. He died in 651. He was originally a monk of Iona, in which monastery Oswald I, who became king of Northumberland in 635, had been educated. At the request of Oswald I, Aidan was sent to preach Christianity to his subjects, and established himself in Lindisfarne as the first of the line of bishops now designated of Durham.
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St Aldhelm was born in 640 and died in 709. He was abbot of Malmsebury and later the bishop of Sherborne. He was an architect and poet.
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St Alphege was an Anglo-Saxon priest. He was born in 954 and died in 1012. He was bishop of Winchester from 984 and archbishop of Canterbury from 1006. When the Danes attacked Canterbury he tried to protect the city, was thrown into prison, and, refusing to deliver the treasures of his cathedral, was stoned and beheaded at Greenwich on the 19th of April 1012, his feast day.
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St Ambrose was a celebrated father of the Christian church. He was born in 333 or 334, probably at Treves and died in 397. His father was prefect at Treves. He was educated at Rome, studied law, practised as a pleader at Milan, and in 369 was appointed governor of Liguria and AEmilia (North Italy). His kindness and wisdom gained him the esteem and love of the people, and in 374 he was unanimously called to the bishopric of Milan, though not yet baptized. For a time he refused to accept the post, but he had to give way, and at once ranged himself against the Arians. In his struggles against the Arian heresy he was opposed by Justina, mother of Valentinian II, and for a time by the young emperor himself, together with the courtiers and the Gothic troops. Backed by the people of Milan, however, he felt strong enough to deny the Arians the use of a single church in the city, although Justina, in her son's name, demanded that two should be given up. He also carried on a war with paganism, Symmachus, the prefect of the city, an eloquent orator, having endeavoured to restore the freedom to worship heathen deities.
In 390, on account of the massacre at Thessalonica ordered by the emperor Theodosius, he refused him entrance into the church of Milan for eight months. The later years of his life were devoted to the more immediate care of his see. His writings, which are numerous, show that his theological knowledge extended little beyond an acquaintance with the works of the Greek fathers. He wrote Latin hymns, but the Te Deum Laudamus, which has been ascribed to him, was written a century later. He introduced the Ambrosian Chant, a mode of singing more monotonous than the Gregorian which superseded it. He also compiled a form of ritual known by his name.
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St Andrew was a Christian preacher. He was the brother of St Peter, and the first disciple whom Christ chose. He is said to have preached in Scythia, in Thrace and Asia Minor, and in Achaia (Greece), and according to tradition he was crucified at Patrse, now Patras, in Achaia, on a cross of the form X. Hence such a cross is now known as a St Andrew's cross. The Russians revere him as the apostle who brought the gospel to them; the Scots, as the patron saint of their country. The day dedicated to him is the 30th of November.
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St Angilbert was the most celebrated poet of his age. He lived around the 8th centruy, and died in 814. He was secretary and friend of Charlemagne, whose daughter, Bertha, he married. In the latter part of his life he retired to a monastery, of which he became abbot.
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St Anselm was a Christian philosopher and theologian. He was born in 1033 at Piedmont and died in 1109. At the age of twenty-seven he became a monk at Bec, in Normandy, whither he had been attracted by the celebrity of Lanfranc. Three years later he was elected prior, and in 1078 he was chosen abbot, which he remained for fifteen years. During this period of his life he wrote his first philosophical and religious works: the dialogues on Truth and Free-will, and the treatises Monologion and Proslogion; and at the same time his influence made itself so felt among the monks under his charge that Bec became the chief seat of learning in Europe. In 1093 Anselm was offered by William Rufus the archbishopric of Canterbury, and accepted it, though with great reluctance, and with the condition that all the lands belonging to the see should be restored. William II soon quarrelled with the archbishop, who would show no subservience to him, and would persist in acknowledging Pope Urban in opposition to the antipope Clement. William ultimately had to give way. He both himself acknowledged Urban and conferred the pallium upon Anselm.
The king became his bitter enemy, however, and so great were Anselm's difficulties that in 1097 he set out for Rome to consult with the pope. Urban received him with great distinction, but did not venture really to take the side of the prelate against the king, though William had refused to receive Anselm again as archbishop, and had seized on the revenues of the see of Canterbury, which he retained till his death in 1100. Anselm accordingly remained abroad, where he wrote most of his celebrated treatise on the atonement, entitled Cur Deus Homo (Why God was made Man; translated into English, Oxford, 1858). When William was succeeded by Henry I Anselm was recalled; but Henry insisted that he should submit to be reinvested in his see by himself, although the popes claimed the right of investing for themselves alone. Much negotiation followed, and Henry did not surrender his claims until 1107, when Anselm's long struggle on behalf of the rights of the church came to an end. Anselm was a great scholar, a deep and original thinker, and a man of the utmost saintliness and piety. The chief of his writings are the Monologion, the Proslogion, and the Cur Deus Homo. The first is an attempt to prove inductively the existence of God by pure reason without the aid of Scripture or authority; the second is an attempt to prove the same by the deductive method; the Cur Deus Homo is intended to prove the necessity of the incarnation. Among his numerous other writings are more than 400 letters. His biography was written by his domestic chaplain and companion, Eadmer, a monk of Canterbury.
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St Anthony was the founder of monastic institutions. He was born in 251 near Heraclea, in Upper Egypt and died about 356. Giving up all his property he retired to the desert, where he was followed by a number of disciples, who thus formed the first community of monks.
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St Athanasius was Archbishop of Alexandria. He was born in 296 and died in 373. He was a renowned father of the church, and while yet a young man he attended the council at Nice in 325, where he gained the highest esteem of the fathers by the talents which he displayed in the Arian controversy. He had a great share in the decrees passed here, and thereby drew on himself the hatred of the Arians. Shortly afterwards he was appointed archbishop of Alexandria. The complaints and accusations of his enemies at length induced the Emperor Constantine to summon him in 334 before the councils of Tyre and Jerusalem, when he was suspended, and afterwards banished to Treves.
The death of Constantine put an end to this banishment, and Constantius recalled the holy patriarch. His return to Alexandria resembled a triumph. Deposed again in 340, he was reinstated in 342. Again in 355 he was sentenced to be banished, when he retired into those parts of the desert which were entirely uninhabited. He was followed by a faithful servant, who, at the risk of his life, supplied him with the means of subsistence. Here Athanasius composed many writings, full of eloquence, to strengthen the faith of the believers, or expose the falsehood of his enemies. When Julian the Apostate ascended the throne toleration was proclaimed to all religions, and Athanasius returned to his former position at Alexandria. His next controversy was with the heathen subjects of Julian, who excited the emperor against him, and he was obliged to flee in order to save his life.
The death of the emperor and the accession of Jovian in 363 again brought him back; buf Valens becoming emperor, and the Arians recovering the superiority, he was once more compelled to flee. He concealed himself in the tomb of his father, where he remained four months, until Valens allowed him to return. From this period he remained undisturbed in his office until he died. Of the forty-six years of his official life he spent twenty in banishment, and the greater part of the remainder in defending the Nicene Creed. His writings, which are in Greek, are on polemical, historical, and moral subjects. The polemical treat chiefly of the doctrines of the Trinity, the incarnation of Christ, and the divinity of the Holy Spirit. The historical ones are of the greatest importance for the history of the church, for example the Athanasian Creed.
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St Augustine (real name Aurelius Augustinus) was a father of the Christian Church. He was born in 354 at Tagaste, in Africa and died in 430. His mother Monica was a Christian, his father Patrlcius a Pagan. His parents sent him to Carthage to complete his education, but he disappointed their expectations by his neglect of serious study and his devotion to pleasure. A lost book of Marcus Cicero's, called Hortensius, led him to the study of philosophy; but dissatisfied with this he went over to the Manichaeans. He was one of their disciples for nine years, but left them, went to Rome, and thence to Milan, where he announced himself as a teacher of rhetoric. St Ambrose, the bishop of this city, converted him to the faith of his boyhood, and the reading of Paul's epistles wrought an entire change in his life and character. He retired into solitude, and prepared himself for baptism, which he received in his thirty-third year from the hands of Ambrose. Returning to Africa, he sold his estate and gave the proceeds to the poor, retaining only enough to support him. At the desire of the people of Hippo Augustine became the assistant of the bishop of that town, preached with extraordinary success, and in 395 succeeded to the see. He entered into a warm controversy with Pelagiue concerning the doctrines of free-will, grace, and predestination, and wrote treatises concerning them, but of his various works his Confessions is among the most highly rated.
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St Austin was the Apostle of the English. He lived at the end of the 6th century and died in 604. He was sent with forty monks by Pope Gregory I to introduce Christianity into Saxon England, and was kindly received by Ethelbert, king of Kent, whom he converted, baptizing 10,000 of his subjects in one day. In acknowledgment of his tact and success St Austin received the archiepiscopal pall from the pope, with instructions to establish twelve sees in his province, but he could not persuade the British bishops in Wales to unite with the new English Church.
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St Basil (called the Basil the Great) was one of the Greek fathers. He was was born in 329 and died in 379. In 370 he was made Bishop of Caesarea in Cappadocia. He was distinguished by his efforts for the regulation of clerical discipline, and above all, his endeavours for the promotion of monastic life. The Greek Church honours him as one of its most illustrious saints, and celebrates his festival on January the 1st. The vows of obedience, chastity, and poverty framed by St Basil are essentially the rules of all the orders of Christendom, although he is particularly the father of the eastern, as St Benedict is the patriarch of the western orders.
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St Benedict was the founder of the first religious order in the West. He was born in 480 at Nursia, in the province of Umbria, Italy, and died in 543. In early youth he renounced the world and passed some years in solitude, acquiring a great reputation for sanctity. Being chosen head of a monastery his strictness proved too great for the monks, and he was forced to leave. The rule for monks, which he afterwards drew up, was first introduced into the monastery on Monte Cassino, in the neighbourhood of Naples, founded by him. His Regula Monachorum, in which he aimed, among other things, at repressing the irregular lives of the wandering monks, gradually became the rule of all the western monks. Under his rule the monks, in addition to the work of God (as he called prayer and the reading of religious writings), were employed in manual labour, in the instruction of the young, and in copying manuscripts, thus preserving many literary remains of antiquity.
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St Bernard of Clairvaux was one of the most influential ecclesiastics of the middle ages. He was born in 1091 at Fontaines, Burgundy and died in 1153. In 1113 he became a monk at Citeaux; in 1115 first abbot of Clairvaux, the great Cistercian monastery near Langres. His austerities, tact, courage, and eloquence speedily gave him a wide reputation; and when, on the death of Honorius III in 1130, two popes, Innocent and Anaclete, were elected, the judgment of St Bernard in favour of the former was accepted by nearly all Europe.
In 1140 he secured the condemnation of Abelard for heresy; and after the election of his pupil, Eugenius III, to the papal chair, he may be said to have exercised supreme power in the church. After the capture of Edessa by the Turks he was induced to preach a new crusade, which he did in 1146 with disastrous effectiveness, the large host raised by him being destroyed.
Seventy-two monasteries owed their foundation or enlargement to him and he left no fewer than 440 epistles, 340 sermons, and 12 theological and moral treatises. He was canonized in 1174.
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St Blasius was Bishop of Sebaste in Armenia. He was said to have been martyred around 316 by torture with a wool-comb, from which he became the patron St of wool-combers.
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St Bonaventure, otherwise John of Fidanza was one of the most renowned scholastic philosophers. He was born in 1221 in the Papal States and died in 1274. In 1243 he became a Franciscan monk; in 1253 teacher of theology at Paris, where he had studied; in 1256 general of his order, which he ruled with a prudent mixture of gentleness and firmness. In 1273 Gregory X. made him a cardinal, and he died in 1274 while papal legate at the Council of Lyons. He was canonized in 1482 by Sixtus IV. His writings are elevated in thought and full of a fine mysticism, a combination which procured him the name of Doctor Seraphicus. He wrote on all the philosophical and theological topics of the time with authority, but best, perhaps, on those that touch the heart and imagination. Among his writings are Itinerarium Mentis in Deum; Reductio Artium in Theologiam; Centiloquium; and Breviloquium.
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St Boniface (the apostle of Germany) was an English missionary. He was born in 680 at Devonshire and died in 755. His original name was Winfrid and he was born of a noble Anglo-Saxon family. In his thirtieth year he took orders as a priest, and in 718 he went to Rome and was authorized by Gregory II to preach the gospel to the pagans of Germany. His labours were carried on in Thuringia, Bavaria, Friesland, Hesse, and Saxony, through all of which he travelled, baptizing thousands and consecrating churches. Latterly he erected bishoprics and organized provincial synods. In 723 he was made a bishop, and in 732 an archbishop and primate of all Germany. Many bishoprics of Germany, as Ratisbon, Erfurt, Paderborn, Wiirzburg, and others, and also the famous abbey of Fulda, owe their foundation to him. He was slain in West Friesland by some barbarians in 755, and was buried in the abbey of Fulda.
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St Bridget (St Bride) was an Irish saint. She was born about the middle of the 5th century. She was supposedly exceedingly beautiful, and to avoid offers of marriage and other temptations implored God to render her ugly, a prayer which was granted. An order of nuns of St Bride was established, which continued to nourish for centuries. St. Bride was held in great reverence in Scotland as well as in Ireland.
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St Brigitte (St Birgit) was a Swedish princess. She was born about 1302 and died in 1373. The daughetr of a Swedish prince, she died on her return to Rome from a pilgrimage to Palestine. She left some mystic writings, and was the originator of a new religious order, at one time numerous. Her youngest daughter, Catherine, was also canonized, and became the patron saint of Sweden.
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The first St Bruno was a Benedictine apostle of Prussia who accompanied St Adalbert to Prussia, was appointed chaplain to the Emperor Henry II, and who, having been taken by the Pagans of Lithuania, had his hands and feet cut off, and was beheaded in 1008.
The second St Bruno was the founder of the order of Carthusian monks. He was born about 1030 at Cologne of an old and noble family; appointed by Bishop Gervais superintendent of all the schools of the Rheims district, whither he attracted many distinguished scholars, among others Odo, afterwards Pope Urban II. Subsequently he was offered the bishopric of Rheims, but, declining it, repaired with six friends to Hugo, bishop of Grenoble, who, in 1084 or 1086, led them to the Chartreuse, the spot from which the order of monks received its name. Here, in a bleak and narrow valley, Bruno and his companions built an oratory, and small separate cells for residence. In 1089 he reluctantly accepted the invitation of Urban II to Rome, but refused every spiritual dignity, and in 1094 founded a second Carthusian establishment in Delia Torre, Calabria. Here he died in 1101. He was beatified by Leo X and canonized by Gregory XV.
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In the Roman hagiology there are six saints of this name, of whom only two are of importance:
St Catharine was a virgin of Alexandria who suffered martyrdom in the 4th century. She is represented with a wheel; and the legend of her marriage with Christ has been painted by several of the first masters.
St Catharine of Siena, born in 1347 and died in 1380. She was supposedly preternaturally pious from her birth, and at six years of age was given to self-castigation and other penances. Urban VI and Gregory XI sought her advice, and in 1460 - 80 years after her death - she was canonized. Her poems and letters have been published.
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St Cecilia was a Christian martyr. She died in 230. The patron saint of music, she has been falsely regarded as the inventor of the organ. In the Roman Catholic Church her festival celebrated on November the 22nd is made the occasion of splendid music. Her story forms one of Chaucer's Canterbury Tales, and Dryden in his Alexander's Feast, and Pope in his Ode on St Cecilia's Day, have sung her praises. Raphael, Domenichino, Doice, and Mignard, have represented her in celebrated paintings.
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St Clare was the first woman follower of St Francis of Assisi. She was born in 1194 and died in 1253. She founded the order of Poor Clares, who follow Franciscan rule and are one of the severest female religious orders. She is celebrated on August 12th.
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St Columba was an Irish missionary. He was born in 521 at Gartan, Donegal and died in 597. In 545 he founded the monastery of Derry, and subsequently established many churches in Ireland. About 563 he landed in the island of Hy, now called Iona, and founded his church. About 565 he went on a mission of conversion among the northern Picts, and traversed the whole of Northern Scotland preaching the Christian faith and founding monasteries, all of which he made subject to that which he had set up on the island of Hy. The Columban church was in some points of doctrine and ceremonial opposed to that of Rome, to which it owed no allegiance. Shortly before his death he revisited Ireland. There is a well-known life of St Columba, Vita Sancti Columbae, written by St Adamnan, abbot of Iona.
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St Columbanus (St Columban) was an Irish missionary and reformer of monastic life. He was born about 540 and died in 615. He became a monk in the Irish monastery of Benchor (Bangor), went through England to France with twelve other monks to preach Christianity, and founded the monasteries of Annegray, Luxeuil, and Fontaine in Burgundy. His rule, which was adopted in latter times by many monasteries in France, commands blind obedience, silence, fasting, prayers and labour, much more severe than the Benedictine rule, and punishes the smallest offences of the monks with stripes. He retained also the old ecclesiastical customs of the Irish, among which is the celebration of Easter at a different time from the Roman Church. He appears to have remained at Luxeuil for nearly twenty years. He then went among the heathen Alemanni, and preached Christianity in Switzerland. About 612 he passed into Lombardy, and founded the monastery of Bobbio, in which he died in 615. His writings comprise his monastic rule, sermons, some poems and ecclesiastical treatises. His Life was written by Abbot Jonas, a successor in the abbacy of Bobbio.
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St Crispin is the patron St of shoe-makers.
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St Cuthbert was a celebrated father of the early English Church. He was born, according to the tradition, near Melrose about 635 and died in 687. He became a monk, and in 664 was appointed prior of Melrose, which after some years he quitted to take a similar charge in the monastery of Lindisfarne. Still seeking a more ascetic life, Cuthbert then retired to the desolate isle of Fame. Here the fame of his holiness attracted many great visitors, and he was at last persuaded to accept the bishopric of Hexham, which he, however, resigned two years after, again retiring to his hermitage in the island of Fame, where he died in 687. The anniversary of his death was a great festival in the English Church.
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St Cyprian was Bishop of Carthage and an early Christian martyr. He was born in 205 and died in 258.
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St Cyril (known as Cyril of Jerusalem) was the Bishop of Jerusalem. He was born in 318 and died in 386.
St Cyril, known as 'the Apostle of the Slaves,' was a native of Thessatonica. He converted the Chazars, a people of Hunnish stock, and the Bulgarians, about 860. He died about 868. He was the inventor of the Cyrillian Letters, which took their name from him, and is probably the author of the Apologies which bear his name.
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St David is the patron Saint of Wales. He was the Archishop of Caerlon and afterwards Menevia, now called St Davids, where he died about 601. He was celebrated for his piety, and many legends are told of his miraculous powers. His writings are no longer extant. His life was written by Ricemarch, bishop of, St David's in the llth century.
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St Denis was the apostle of the Gauls. He set out from Rome on his sacred mission towards the middle of the 3rd century, became the first Bishop of Paris, and was put to death by the Roman governor Pescennius. Catulla, a heathen lady converted by the sight of the saint's piety and sufferings, bad his body buried in her garden, where the Abbey of St Denis now stands.
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St Dionysius was a disciple of Origen, and patriarch of Alexandria in 248 AD. He was driven from the city in 250, and in 257 was banished to Libya, but was restored in 260. He died in 265 AD.
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St Dominic (Dominic de Guzman) was a Spanish priest. He was born in 1170 at Calahorra and died in 1221. He early distinguished himself by his zeal for the reform of canonical life and by his success as a missionary amongst the Mulsims. His attention having been directed to the Albigenses in the south of France, he organized a mission of preachers against heresy in Languedoc. In 1215 he went to Rome to obtain the sanction of Pope Innocent III to erect the mission into a new order of preaching friars. His request was only partially granted, and it was the succeeding pope, Honorius III, who first recognized the importance of a preaching order, and conferred full privileges on the Dominicans. He also appointed Dominic Master of the Sacred Palace or court preacher to the Vatican, an office which is still held by one of the order. Dominic died at Bologna in 1221, and was canonized in 1234 by Pope Gregory IX. St Dominic is usually considered the founder of the Inquisition, which is supposed to have originated with his mission to the Albigenses; but his claim is denied, on the ground that two Cistercian monks were appointed inquisitors in 1198.
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St Dunstan was an English monk, abbot and royal advisor. He was born in 924 near Glastonbury and died in 988. Becoming a monk at Winchester, he settled at Glastonbury, of which he was appointed abbot by King Edmund in 945, and soon made the monastery famous as a centre of learning. On the death of Edmund he became chief adviser to the queen-mother, Eadgifu, and the young king, Edred; and through his policy the West Saxons ultimately conquered Northumbria from the Danes. With the death of Edred in 955 and the succession of Edwy, Dunstan's influence ceased and he moved to Flanders and studied the Benedictine rule. Being recalled to England by Edgar, who had become king of the country north of the Thames, Dunstan was made Bishop of Worcester and afterwards Bishop of London. With the death of Edwy in 959 Edgar became king of all England and appointed Dunstan Archbishop of Canterbury in the same year. Being famed for his skill in working with gold he became the patron saint of goldsmiths.
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St Edmund was king of East Anglia. He was born in 841 at Nuremberg and died in 870. He was the son of the Saxon king Alkmund and was adopted as his heir by Offa whom he succeeded in 855. He was constantly attacked by the Danes and at the battle of Hoxne in 866 was defeated by them and afterwards murdered by them. The church made him a martyr, and a town (Bury St Edmunds) grew up round the place of his sepulture.
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St Elizabeth was a Hungarian queen and later saint. She was born in 1207 at Pressburg and died in 1231. She was the daughter of Andrew II and the wife of Louis IV and in 1221 married to Ludwig, landgrave of Thuringia. She erected hospitals, fed a multitude of poor from her own table, and wandered about in a humble dress, relieving the wretched. Louis IV died on a crusade, and her own life terminated on November the 19th, 1231, in a hospital which she had herself established. The church over her tomb at Marburg is one of the most splendid Gothic edifices in Germany.
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St Epiphanius was a Palestinian saint. He was born in about 310 at Palestine and died in 403. About 367 he was consecrated Bishop of Salamis or Constantia, in Cyprus. He was a zealous denouncer of heresy, and combated the opinions of Arius and Origen. His work Panarion gives the history, together with the refutation, of a great number of heresies. His festival is on the 12th of May.
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St Ethelbert was the first Christian king of the Heptarchy in 560.
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St Fillan the leper or St Faolan the leper is a saint whose annual festival is the 20th of June. His principal church in Scotland was at the lower end of Loch Earn, in Perthshire, where 'St. Fillan's Well' was long believed to have wonderful healing properties.
St Fillan the abbot was the son of St. Kentigerna in Inchcailleach, in Loch Lomond, had his chief church also in Perthshire, in Strathfillan, the upper part of Glen Dochart. The silver head of this abbot's crozier, intrusted by King Robert Bruce to the Dewar family, is now in the Antiquarian Museum, Edinburgh.
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St Florian is the patron saint of Poland. He was born about 190 and died in 230 by drowning during the Diocletian persecution. He is represented as pouring out flames from a vessel, and his protection is sought against fire.
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St Francis of Paula was born in 1416 in the city of Paula, in Calabria and died in 1507. He was brought up in a Franciscan convent, and in 1436 founded a new order, which, when the statutes were confirmed by Alexander VI, received the name of the Minims (Latin, minimi, the least). To the three usual vows Francis added a fourth, that of keeping the Lenten fast during the whole year. The fame of his miraculous cures reached Louis XI of France, who invited him to France, in the hope that Francis would be able to prolong his life. After the death of Louis, Charles VIII built him a monastery in the park of Plessis-les-Tours and also at Amboise, and loaded him with honour and tokens of veneration. Twelve years after his death he was canonized by Leo X, and his festival is April the 2nd.
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St George is the tutelary Saint of England, Portugal and Aragon, and was the patron Saint of chivalry in Europe in medieval times. His origin is obscure, but some writers claim he was a native of Cappadocia and rebuked Diocletian for his persecution of Christians. By this story he was arrested, tortured and executed at Nicomedia in 303. He was canonized in 494 or 496 by Pope Gelasius. The tradition of St George with a Dragon dates from the 6th century. In 1222 the Council of Oxford declared that his day, April the 23rd should be observed as a national holiday in England, and in 1350 he was made the patron of the Order of The Garter by Edward III.
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St Giles was a native of Greece, who, according to the legend, lived in the 6th century, and was descended from an illustrious family. He is said to have worked miracles, and founded a convent in France. He became the patron saint of Edinburgh. His festival falls on the 1st of September.
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St Hilary was one of the early fathers of the Christian church. He was born at Poitiers, of which city, after his conversion he became the bishop about 350. His contests with the Arians caused his banishment to Phrygia, whence be returned after some years, and continued to distinguish himself as an active diocesan until his death in 367 or 368.
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St Hilda was a grand-niece of Edwin, King of Northumbria. She was born about 614 and died in 680. At the age of fourteen she was baptized along with her royal kinsman by Paulinus. She was consecrated by Bishop Aidan, and was successively head of the abbey of Hartlepool and of the famous monastery at Whitby. Caedmon, the Anglo-Saxon poet, was attached to the monastery during her rule.
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St Hubert is the Apostle of Ardennes, a saint of the Roman Catholic Church, the patron of huntsmen and patron saint of cheese. He was of a noble family of Aquitaine, While hunting in the forests of Ardennes he had a vision of a stag with a shining crucifix between its antlers, and heard a warning voice. He was converted, entered the church, and eventually became Bishop of Maestricht and Liege. He was alleged to have worked many miracles, and is said to have died in 727 or 730. He is buried at the Abbaye de Maroilles in northern France.
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St Ignatius was bishop of Antioch and one of the apostolic fathers, said to have been a disciple of the apostle John. His life and death are wrapped in fable. According to the most trustworthy tradition he was appointed Bishop of Antioch in 69, and was thrown to wild beasts in the circus of Antioch by the command of Trajan, the date being given by some as 107, by others as 116. By the Greek Church his festival is celebrated on December the 20th, by the Latin on February the 1st.
In the literature of the early Christian church Ignatius holds an important place as the reputed author of a number of epistles. These have come down to us in three forms. In the longest text they are thirteen in number, but since the discovery of a shorter text containing only seven the first has been universally recognized as in great part spurious, some of the letters entirely so, and others containing interpolations. But even in this shorter form their genuineness has been disputed by numerous scholars. Both of these texts are in Greek, but a still shorter text in the Syriac language, containing only three letters, exists. Some maintain that the Syriac text was the earliest, though not earlier than the middle of the 2nd century. Others hold the genuineness of the shorter Greek text.
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St Ignatius was patriarch of Constantinople. The son of the Emperor Michael I he was born about 798 and died in 878. When hia father was deposed he entered a monastery, assuming the name of Ignatius. In 846 he was raised to the patriarchate. He was opposed to the Iconoclasts, and his refusal to admit Bardas, brother of the Empress Theodora, as a communicant, on account of his reported immorality, led to his deposition in 857. The schism between the Greek and Roman Churches began while Photius, his successor, was in office, and has con tinued ever since. He was reinstated in 867, and at an ecumenical council assembled, at Constantinople in 869 Photius and his party were condemned.
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St John Chrysostom was a Greek missionary. He was born in 344 at Antioch and died in 407. Secundus, his father, who had the command of the imperial troops in Syria, died soon after the birth of his son, whose early education devolved upon Anthusa, his mother. Chrysostom Studied eloquence with Libanius, the most famou's orator of his time, and soon excelled his master.
After having studied philosophy with Andragathius he devoted himself to the Holy Scriptures, and determined upon quitting the world and consecrating his life to God in the deserts of Syria. He spent several years in solitary retirement, studying and meditating with a view to the church. Having completed his voluntary probation he returned to Antioch in 381, when he was appointed deacon by the Bishop of Antioch, and in 386 consecrated priest. He was chosen vicar by the same dignitary, and commissioned to preach the Word of God to the people.
He became so celebrated for the eloquence of his preaching that the Emperor Arcadius determined, in 397, to place him in the archiepiscopal see of Constantinople (Istanbul). He now exerted himself so zealously in supressing heresy, paganism, and immorality, and in enforcing the obligations of monachism, that he raised up many enemies, and Theophilus, patriarch of Alexandria, aided and encouraged by the Empress Eudoxia, caused him to be deposed at a synod held at Chalcedon. The emperor banished him from Constantinople, and Chrysostom purposed retiring to Bithynia; but the people threatened a revolt. In the following night an earthquake gave general alarm. In this dilemma Arcadius recalled his orders, and Eudoxia herself invited Chrysostom to return. The people accompanied him triumphantly to the city, his enemies fled, and peace was restored, but only for a short time.
A feast given by the empress on the consecration of a statue, and attended with many heathen ceremonies, roused the zeal of the archbishop, who publicly exclaimed against it; and Eudoxia, violently incensed, recalled the prelates devoted to her will, and Chrysostom was condemned and exiled to Armenia. Here he continued to exert his pious zeal until the emperor ordered him to be conveyed to a town on the most distant shore of the Black Sea. The officers who had him in charge obliged the old man to perform his journey on foot, and he died at Comana, by the way. Here he was buried; but in 438 his body was conveyed solemnly to Constantinople, and there interred in the Church of the Apostles, in the sepulchre of the emperor.
At a later period his remains were placed in the Vatican at Rome. The Greek Church celebrates his feast on the 13th of November, the Roman on the 27th of January. His .works, which consist of sermons, commentaries, and treatises, abound with information as to the manners and characteristics of his age.
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Saint Kilda was a bogus saint erroneously invented during the 1970's from the name of St Kilda island in the western Isles of Scotland. In reality, the name derives from old Viking word for shields (skildar), reflecting the outline of a neighbouring group of islands whose outline resembles a shield.
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St Pancras was a noble Roman youth martyred by Diocletian in 304 aged 14.
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St Paul, originally called Saul, had his name changed to Paul in honour of Sergius Paulus whom he converted. He was supposedly born at Giscalis in Judaea and moved with his family to Tarsus. He was beheaded in the 14th year of the reign of Nero.
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St Stephen was the first king of Hungary. He was born in 969 and died in 1038. He was originally called Vaik and was converted to Christianity in 995 and crowned king in 1000. He established Christianity during his reign through Hungary.
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St Swithin (St Swithun) was a British saint and bishop of Winchester. He died in 862. He was probably an English noble, and was in favour with Egbert, king of the West Saxons whose son Ethelwulf made him bishop of Winchester in 852. He was instrumental in the building of bridges and churches. After his death the cathedral at Winchester was dedicated to him.
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Saint Valentine is the name of several saints. Two of the name, a priest and a bishop, are said to have been martyred near Rome on the same day, February the 14th, about 270. The practice of sending love tokens on their festival, February the 14th, is a survival of the Roman custom of boys drawing the names of girls by lot in honour of Juno Februalis at the Lupercalia about the same date.
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St Vincent de Paul was a French priest. He was born in 1576 and died in 1660. He instituted the Lazarist Society and worked among galley slaves. He was canonized in 1737.
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St Walburga was an eighth century English St who was sent to evangelise the heathen Germans and ended up running an abbey at Heidenheim.
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A stadtholder was a government official in the Low Countries between the 15th and 18th centuries. Initially, stadtholders were noblemen appointed by the ruling dukes as viceroys in each province of the Low Countries. In the late 16th century, when the provinces that later became the Netherlands won their independence from Spain, the stadtholderates were recognized as belonging to the house of Orange. In 1747 Prince William IV was elected to all the stadtholder positions, effectively making him ruler of the Netherlands. The system of stadtholder rule was replaced in 1795 by the so-called Batavian Republic, which was modelled on the revolutionary French republic.
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Sir Richard Stafford Cripps was a British economist, chemist, patent lawyer and Labour MP. He was born in 1889 at London and died in 1952. An opponent of Chamberlain's policy of appeasement, he was expelled from the Labour party and served as an independent MP during the Second World War, being appointed British ambassador to Moscow in 1940. He signed the Anglo-Russian pact in July 1941. Following the Second World War in 1945 he was readmitted to the Labour Party and was chancellor of the exchequer in post-war Britain.
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Stafford Henry Northcote, first Earl of Iddesleigh, was an English statesman. He was born in 1818 and died in 1887. He was educated at Eton and at Balliol College, Oxford, where he gained high honours. He became private secretary to William Gladstone in 1842, and was called to the bar in 1847. In 1851 he succeeded his grandfather in the family baronetcy. He held various offices, and represented several constituencies as a Conservative, being for a long time member of parliament for North Devon. He published a treatise, Twenty Years of Financial Policy, in 1862.
He was one of the commissioners to the United States in 1871 to arrange the Alabama difficulty. After being secretary for India from 1867 to 1868 and chancellor of the exchequer from 1874 to 1880, under Benjamin Disraeli, upon the elevation of the latter to the peerage he became leader of the Lower House, his task being all the more difficult owing to parliamentary obstruction, etc. He was elected lord rector of Edinburgh University in 1883. In 1885, when William Gladstone was succeeded by Lord Salisbury, he was created Earl of Iddesleigh, and became first lord of the treasury, being foreign secretary in the next Salisbury cabinet.
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Stan Stephens was an American politician. He was a Republican governor of Montana from 1989 until 1993.
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Count Stanislas Clermon-Tonnerre was a French noble. He was born in 1747 and died in 1792. At the outbreak out of the French Revolution in 1789 he endeavoured to promote the establishment of a constitutional monarchy, founding with Malouet the Monarchical Club, and with Fontanes the Journal des Impartiaux. In 1791 he was charged with assisting the king in his attempt to escape, but was set free on swearing fidelity to the assembly. In 1792, however, he was murdered by the mob at the house of the Countess de Brissac.
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Stanislas I was king of Poland. He was born in 1677 at Lemberg, Galicia and died in 1766. The son of Raphael Leszczynski, he was made palatine of Pose by Augustus II. When Charles XI of Sweden declared war against Poland, Stanislas I was elected as a representative at the congress of Warsaw, in 1704. Charles XII supported his claims to the throne of Poland, and he was crowned on October the 7th 1705. In 1712 he was forced to flee to Bessarabia, but was recalled in 1733. By the treaty of Vienna of 1738, he renounced all claims to the throne of Poland, although he was permitted to keep the title of king. He was given the duchies of Bar and Lorraine.
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Stanislas II was king of Poland. He was born in 1732 and died in 1798. A son of Stanislas Poniatowski, he spent some of his early days at St Petersburg, where he was one of the lovers of the empress Catherine. In 1764 Catherine secured his election as king of Poland. He ruled until he was compelled to abdicate in 1794. After spending some years in prison at St Petersburg he headed the army of the duchy of Warsaw, and as an ally of Napoleon fought against Russia until he was drowned in the Elster.
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Stanley Baldwin was an English statesman. He was born in 1867 and died in 1947. He was Prime Minister three times.
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Stanley C Wilson was an American politician. He was a Republican governor of Vermont from 1931 until 1935.
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Stanley K Hathaway was an American politician. He was a Republican governor of Wyoming from 1967 until 1975.
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Sir Stanley Matthews is an English Association Football player. He was born in 1915 at Hanley. The son of boxer Jack Matthews. Stanley Matthews started as a sprinter switching to Association Football and playing for Stoke City where he had worked as ground staff since he left school, as a winger in 1931. He left Stoke City to play for Blackpool in 1947, leaving Blackpool and returning to Stoke City in 1961. He played in 701 league and 86 FA Cup matches and played 54 times for England.
Stanley Matthews was an American politician. He was born in 1824 and died in 1889. He commanded a brigade at Murfreesboro, Chickamauga and Lookout Mountain in the American Civil War. He represented Ohio in the US Senate as a Republican from 1877 to 1879. He was a Justice of the US Supreme Court from 1881 to 1889.
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Stanley Milgram was an American psychologist. He was born in 1933 and died in 1984. He carried out controversial research into the subject of obedience, seeking to show that German concentration camp guards during the Second World War were responsible for their actions.
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Sir Stanley Spencer was an English painter. He was born in 1891 at Cookham-on-Thames and died in 1959. He primarily painted Christian themes including a series of murals for the oratory of All Souls' at Burghclere.
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Sir Stapleton Cotton was an English soldier and the first Viscount of Combermere. He was born in 1773 and died in 1865. In 1808 he went to the Peninsula, and two years later was placed in command of the cavalry of the allied forces in Spain. He fought at the Battle of Talavera, Salamanca and Toulouse. Later he commanded the cavalry of the army of occupation in France after the Battle of Waterloo. He was created Baron Combermere in 1814, and viscount in 1827. He was commander of the forces in the West Indies from 1817 to 1820, commander-in-chief in Ireland from 1822 to 1825 and in India from 1825 to 1830 and field-marshal in 1855.
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The term statesman is applied to a politician who is noted for his skilful and energetic activity in affairs of state, rather than simply a common politician of little or no merit. Thus, the American general George Washington is referred to as a statesman on account of his major role in early American politics.
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Statira was the sister and wife of Darius III, the last king of ancient Persia. She was captured by Alexander The Great after the battle of Issus in 333 BC and died shortly after the battle of Arbela in 335 BC.
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Steen Stensen Blicher was a Danish poet and novelist. He was born in 1782 and died in 1848. His novels give an accurate account of country life in Jutland in the middle of the 19th century. His collected poems, which are national and spirited, were published 1835-36. He also translated Ossian, and Goldsmith's Vicar of Wakefield.
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Stefan Zweig was a German writer. He was born in 1881 and died in 1942.
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General Stefanik was a Slovak soldier and airman. He was born around 1884 and died in 1919 in an air-crash. On the outbreak of the Great War he joined the French army as a private, and rose through the ranks to become a general. In 1916 he undertook propaganda work on the Italian front and being already a proficient airmen, made valuable observations while dropping pamphlets among the Czech regiments of the Austrian army. On the formation of the Czecho-Slovak republic be became commander-in-chief and war minister. He was killed in 1919 while flying to Prague when his plane crashed near Pressburg.
*Sten Sture
Sten Sture was a Swedish noble and leader. He was born in 1440 and died in 1503. A nephew of Charles VIII, upon his uncle's death in 1470 Sten Sture became regent, despite the preference of many Swedish nobles for the election of Christian I of Denmark. Sten Sture defeated the Danes at Brunkeberg, but was later compelled to acknowledge the Danish suzerainty. Sten Sture is credited with the introduction of printing into Sweden and the founding of the university of Upsala.
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Stendhal was the pen-name of the French novelist Marie Henri Beyle. He was born in 1783 at Grenoble and died in 1842. He obtained a post in the ministry of war, witnessed the battle of Marengo, and then enlisting rose to be adjutant to General Michaud. From 1806 until 1814 he held a place in the commissariat, taking part in the campaign of 1812. From 1815 until 1821 he lived at Milan before returning to Paris. He was consul at Trieste and Civita Vecchia from 1830 until 1841. Among his novels are 'La Chartreuse de Parme' published in 1839 which is notable for its account of the Battle of Waterloo.
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Stepan Nikolof Stambulov was a Bulgarian statesman. He was born in 1854 at Tirnova and died in 1895. He was president of the Sobranye from 1884 to 1886 and on the abdication of Prince Alexander in 1886 became head of a council of regency and succeeded in getting Prince Ferdinand elected to the throne in 1887 with himself as Prime Minister. He was dismissed in 1894 for his tyranny and in 1895 died at the hands of a Macedonian assassin in Sofia.
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Stephane Mallarme was a French poet. He was born in 1842 at Paris and died in 1898. He founded the Symbolists school of poetry.
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Stephanie Felicite Ducrest de St Aubin, Countess de Genlis, was a French writer. She was born in 1746 near Autun and died in 1830. At four years of age she was admitted as a canoness into the noble chapter at Aix, and at seventeen married the Count de Genlis. By this marriage she became niece to Madame de Montesson (who had been privately married to the Duc d'Orleans), and obtained through her the place of lady-in-waiting to the Duchesse de Chartres. In 1782 the Duc de Chartres (Philippe Egalite) appointed her governess of his children.
She obtained great influence over her employer, and was the object a great deal of goosip and scandal in her relations with him, which was strengthened by the mysterious appearance of an adopted daughter, afterwards known by the name of Pamela,, who married Lord Edward Fitzgerald. At this time she published several works on education, etc. On the breaking out of the Revolution she retired for a while to Switzerland, and then to Altona. In 1800 she returned to France, gained the favour of Napoleon, who gave her a pension. From that time she resided constantly in Paris.
Her works, which embrace a wide variety of subjects, amount altogether to about ninety volumes, and include some of the standard novels in the French language. Her voluminous Memoires, written when she was upwards of eighty years of age, abound in scandal, and are full of malignant attacks upon her contemporaries.
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Stephanus Van Cortlandt was an American politician. He was born in 1643 and died in 1700. He held every prominent office in the province of New York except the Governorship. He was Mayor of New York almost continuously from 1677 until 1700. His estate was erected into a lordship and manor in 1697.
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Stephen was King of England from 1135 to 1154. He was born in 1097 and died in 1154. Stephen was the son of Stephen, Count of Blois and of Adela. On the death of Henry I in 1135, Stephen took advantage of his popularity to claim the throne against his cousin Matilda, and was quickly crowned. However, he became unpopular by his actions and alienated much of the population and had to bring in Flemish mercenaries. David of Scotland invaded the north on behalf of his niece Matilda but was beaten at Northallerton in 1138. In 1152 Matilda's son Henry came over to claim the throne and Stephen acknowledged his claim in exchange for peace.
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Stephen Vincent Benet was an American writer. He was born in 1898 and died in 1943. He wrote the poem John Brown's Body which deals with the American Civil War.
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Stephen Bloomer was an English Association Football player. He was born in 1874 and died in 1938. He played for Derby County, Middlesborough and England, making 23 appearances at inside right for England and scoring 28 goals.
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Stephen D Miller was an American politician. He was a Democratic governor of South Carolina from 1828 until 1830.
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Stephen Decatur was an American sailor. He was born in 1779 at Maryland and died in 1820. He began service in the US navy on the 'United States' in 1798, and in 1803 commanded the 'Argus', and later the 'Enterprise'. In 1804 he distinguished himself by successfully destroying the 'Philadelphia', which had fallen into the possession of Tripoli. In 1812, on the ship 'United States', while commanding an Atlantic squadron, he captured the British ship 'Macedonian', and in 1814, after a stubborn battle, was compelled to surrender the un-seaworthy ship 'President'. In 1815, with ten vessels, he humbled the Barbary powers, and concluded a treaty by which tribute was abolished and prisoners .and property were restored. He was one of the navy commissioners from 1816 to 1820, when he was killed by Commodore Barren in a duel.
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Stephen Arnold Douglas was an American politician. He was born in 1813 at Brandon, Vermont and died in 1861. He worked on a farm, taught school, and at the age of twenty-one began the practice of law in Illinois. Soon afterward he was Attorney-General of the State, member of the Legislature, and an unsuccessful Democratic candidate for Congress. In 1840 he became Secretary of State of Illinois, and in 1841, Judge of the Supreme Court of the State. Judge Douglas was in the House of Representatives from 1843 to 1847, and in the Senate from 1847 to 1861. During this period, when the slavery issue came to overshadow all other questions, the 'Little Giant', as Stephen Douglas was affectionately styled, became one of the leaders of his party. In Congress he favoured the acquisition of the whole of Oregon, and was chairman of the important Committee on Territories. He advocated the compromise of 1850, and formulated the doctrine of Popular Sovereignty. In accordance with the latter idea he reported in December, 1853, the famous Kansas-Nebraska Bill. His name was presented to the Democratic National Conventions in 1852 and 1856. While running for re-election to the Senate in 1858, he carried on a joint debate with Abraham Lincoln, which brought the latter into national prominence. Douglas was nominated for President by the Northern wing of the Democratic party in 1860, but received only twelve electoral votes although a large popular vote was thrown for him. He survived the outbreak of the Civil War but a few months, supporting to the end the cause of the Union.
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Stephen Ladislaus Endlicher was an Austrian botanist, etc. He was born in 1804 at Presburg and died in 1849 by suicide. He was successively court-librarian at Vienna, and keeper of the natural history museum; and in 1840 was appointed professor of botany in the University of Vienna, and director of the botanic garden, which he immediately began to reorganize. He took part on the popular side in the German revolution of 1848. Among his chief botanical works are his Genera Plantarum, a systematic treatise on botany; and his Enchiridion Botanicum or Manual of Botany.
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Stephen F Chadwick was an American politician. He was a Democratic governor of Oregon from 1877 until 1878.
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Stephen Collins Foster was an American composer and song-writer. He was born in 1826 at Lawrenceville and died in 1864. He was especially renowned for his Negro-melodies.
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Stephen Gardiner was an English prelate. He was born in 1483 at Bury St Edmunds and died in 1555. In 1520 he took degrees at Cambridge, and after became Master of Trinity Hall. Having become secretary to Thomas Wolsey and a favourite with the king, he was sent to Rome in 1528 to deliver Henry VIII's divorce, and on his return was appointed secretary of state, and in succession archdeacon of Norwich and Leicester, and Bishop of Winchester. He went on various embassies to France and Germany. he supported the king in renouncing the authority of the pope, but opposed the doctrines of the Reformation, and took an active part in the passing of the six articles and in the prosecution of Protestants. he was successful in contriving the fall of his opponent Cromwell, but fell into disfavour when trying to injure Catherine Parr. During the reign of Edward he was imprisoned in the Fleet, deprived of his bishopric and afterwards imprisoned in the Tower from 1548 to 1553, but Mary restore him his bishopric, and appointed him lord chancellor. he officiated at her coronation and marriage, and became one of her chief advisors. he took an active part in the persecutions at the beginning of her reign and maintained the illegitimacy of Elizabeth I.
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Stephen Girard was a French-born American financier and philanthropist. He was born in 1750 at Bordeaux, France and died in 1831. At the age of fourteen he went to sea as a cabin boy and at the age of twenty-four was a ship's captain working in the American coastal trade. In 1776 he settled in Philadelphia and worked in foreign trade, before in 1793 with the yellow fever plague he volunteered to act as manager of the hospital and in the 1797 epidemic again took the lead in caring for the sick. During the War of 1812 he greatly aided the American Government by a loan of $5,000,000. Upon his death he bequeathed most of his estate to the city of Philadelphia to be used to construct a school or college for 'poor, white, male orphans' and for municipal improvements - thus was founded Girard College for orphans at Philadelphia.
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Stephen Hawes was an English poet who lived in the end of the 15th and beginning of the 16th century. The exact date of his birth and death is unknown. His principal work is The Historie of Graunde Amour and la Bell Pucell, or The Pastime of Pleasure.
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Stephen Heard was an American politician. He was a Whig governor of Georgia during 1780.
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Stephen Hopkins was an American statesman. He was born in 1707 and died in 1785. He was a member of the Rhode Island Assembly during most of the years from 1732 to 1752, and was Speaker at various sessions, between 1738 and 1749. He was one of the committee, at the Albany Convention of 1754, which drafted a plan of colonial union. He was Governor of Rhode Island from 1755 to 1757, from 1758 to 1762, from 1763 to 1765 and from 1767 to 1768. He was a Rhode Island delegate to the Continental Congress from 1774 to 1780, and signed the Declaration of Independence. In 1765 he published 'The Grievances of the American Colonies Candidly Examined'.
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Stephen II was pope from 752 until his death in 757. A Benedictine monk of Rome, his reign as pope saw the establishment of the papal monarchy.
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Stephen W Kearny was an American soldier. He was born in 1794 and died in 1848. He served throughout the War of 1813. He was promoted brigadier-general in 1846, with command in the West. During the Mexican War he established a provisional government in Santa Fe and fought the Battle of San Pasqual, after which he was made major-general. In 1847 he was Governor of California. He wrote a 'Manual of the Exercise and Manoeuvring of US Dragoons'.
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Stephen L R McNichols was an American politician. He was a Democratic governor of Colorado from 1957 until 1963.
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Stephen Lawrence was a British 18 year old teenager murdered in an unprovoked racist attack in Eltham, south-east London in 1993 while waiting to catch a bus. The case was remarkable for highlighting institutional racism within the British police service and Crown prosecution service. Police attending the scene found Stephen Lawrence injured with stab wounds, but made no attempt to administer first aid. Although five white youths were positively identified by eye witnesses as having carried out the attack, the police under pressure from the parents of the youths failed to investigate properly, failed to collect vital evidence and the Crown prosecution service failed to conduct an appropriate trial. In a later private prosecution brought by Stephen Lawrence's family, the judge in an extraordinary move ordered the jury to return a 'not guilty' verdict, after dismissing the case before the majority of evidence had been heard, thereby safeguarding the five accused from ever being prosecuted. The five youths, known to have committed the murder were Neil Acourt, his brother Jamie Acourt, David Norris, Gary Dobson and Luke Knight, all known racist thugs. The case of Stephen Lawrence provoked an inquiry led by Sir William MacPherson which made some 70 recommendations which led to British public bodies being obliged to promote equality and tackle discrimination. Though the reality is quite different, and in 2006 institutional racism within the United Kingdom was as widespread as ever.
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Stephen R Mallory was an American politician. He was born in 1813 at Florida and died in 1873. He was a Senator from Florida from 1851 to 1861. During most of this time he was chairman of the Committee on Naval Affairs. On the formation of the Confederate Government he was appointed by President Davis Secretary of the Navy, which office he held during the continuance of the Confederacy.
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Stephen Miller was an American politician. He was a Republican governor of Minnesota from 1864 until 1866.
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Stephen P Hempstead was an American politician. He was a Democratic governor of Iowa from 1850 until 1854.
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Stephen C Rowan was an American sailor. He was born in 1808 at Ireland and died in 1890. Emigrating from Ireland to America, he entered the US navy in 1826. He assisted in the capture of Monterey and San Diego in 1846 during the Mexican War, and commanded a naval brigade under Commodore Robert Stockton at San Gabriel and La Mesa. In the American Civil War he commanded the Pawnee at Acquia Creek and Hatteras. He commanded tlie fleet in the attack on Roanoke Island in 1863, fought at New Berne and captured Fort Macon. He commanded The New Ironsides off Charleston from 1862 to 1864. He became superintendent of the Naval Observatory in 1882.
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Stephen Royce was an American politician. He was a Republican governor of Vermont from 1854 until 1856.
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Stephen Stepanovitch was a Serbian soldier. He was born in 1855 at Kumodra, near Belgrade. He joined the Serbian army as a lieutenant in 1876 and saw action in the Serbo-Turkish wars of 1876 until 1878, and in the war against Bulgaria from 1885 until 1886. In 1861 he was a colonel and in 1906 he was made a general and for a while acted as minister of war. He took part in the Balkan Wars of 1912 until 1913 and was promoted to the rank of field-marshal shortly after the outbreak of the Great War, where upon he took part in the defeat of the Austrian invasions of 1914 to 1915. In 1918 he was one of the chief Serbian commanders involved in the offensive which resulted in the overthrow of Bulgaria.
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Stephen was an American politician. He was born in 1765 and died in 1839. He was a member of the New York Senate from 1791 to 1795, and Lieutenant-Governor from 1795 to 1801. He served in the New York Assembly from 1808 to 1810. He was appointed commander of the forces on the northern frontier in 1812, and fought the battle of Queenstown Heights. He was a canal commissioner from 1816 to 1839. He represented New York in the US Congress as a supporter of Adams from 1822 to 1829. He founded the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute at Troy.
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Sterling Price was an American soldier and politician. He was born in 1809 and died in 1867. A Confederate general, he was Speaker of the Missouri Lower House, and Congressman from that State in 1845 to 1846. In the Mexican War he commanded a regiment under Kearny and gained success in New Mexico and Chihuahua. He was Governor of Missouri from 1853 to 1857. He was one of the commanders in the defeat of Lyon at Wilson's Creek in 1861. The same year he captured Lexington in Missouri. He was defeated at Iuka the next year, fought at Corinth, in 1863 made an unsuccessful attempt on Helena, and in 1864 resisted General Steele's advances on the Red River region.
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A stevedore is someone who takes charge of the loading and unloading of cargoes. A ship's master is supposed to be a competent stevedore, and is responsible for bad stowage. But a professional stevedore is generally appointed and ship owners are responsible for stowage.
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Stevens T Mason was an American politician. He was a Democratic governor of Michigan from 1837 until 1840.
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Stew was an old 16th and 17th century British term for a prostitute, probably derived from the earlier isolation buildings (stews) that existed in mediaeval Southwark where syphilis infected prostitutes were confined.
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Stieber was a 19th century German spy. Educated as a barrister, he attached himself to the socialist movement for the purpose of betraying its secrets to the Prussian government and later became an official spy. He was given a commission in the Berlin secret police, an organisation he progressed through to become its head. Then he was appointed chief of the Prussian secret service, and was employed by Otto Bismarck. His work in Bohemia and elsewhere considerably helped the Prussian victories over Austria in 1866. Following these he was sent to France, where he organised the spy system on behalf of his country. His methods were to appoint agents, sub-agents &c., and to receive from them reports which were collated in Berlin. He later extended his activities to the United Kingdom.
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Stirling Moss is an English motor-racing driver. He was born in 1925. He was especially successful in the 1950s, winning various Grands Prix and other competitions, though the world championship always eluded him.
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The Stockbridge Indians were a band of Connecticut Mohegans, who were collected by Reverend Sargeant at Stockbridge in 1736. Like the rest of their tribe, they always continued in friendly relations with the English colonists, Between 1820 and 1830 they emigrated from New York to Wisconsin; here the majority soon became citizens of the United States.
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A Stoic was a follower of an Athenian school of philosophy named from the stoa (porch) in which its founder, Zeno of Citium, taught.
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Viscount Stratford de Redcliffe Canning was an English diplomatist. He was born in 1788 and died in 1880. The son of a London merchant and cousin of George Canning, he entered the diplomatic service in 1807, and in 1820 became plenipotentiary at Washington. In 1824 he went as ambassador extraordinary to St Petersburg, and afterwards to Constantinople (Istanbul) about the Greek difficulty; but negotiations were broken off by the battle of Navarino. He was sent again to Constantinople in 1831, and to Spain in 1832, and from 1834 to 1841 sat in parliament for King's Lynn. In 1842 he became ambassador at Constantinople, a post held by him for sixteen years under varying ministries with high honour. In 1852 he was raised to the peerage, and in 1869 created knight of the Garter.
He retired from diplomatic work in 1858, but exercised no small influence in the House of Lords, and as late as 1880 drew up a paper on the Greek claims. He died in the August of that year, having done more than any one man to establish British prestige in the East.
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Viscount Stratford de Redcliffe (Stratford Canning) was a British diplomat. He was born in 1786 at London and died in 1880. Educated at Eton and King's College, Cambridge he held his first diplomatic appointment at the age of 21, and was minister plenipotentiary at Constantinople in 1810, and acting on his own initiative negotiated the treaty of Bucharest in 1812. Afterwards he held important appointments at Vienna in 1815, Washington in 1819, St Petersburg in 1824 and at Constantinople as ambassador from 1825 until 1828 before spending some time in domestic politics, three times sitting in the Commons as a moderate Tory MP.
From 1842 until 1858 he was again ambassador to the sultan of Turkey, earning an extraordinary reputation and securing rights for Christians within the Turkish empire. In 1852 he received his peerage and in 1858 he retired from diplomatic life.
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Strom Thurmond was an American politician. He was a Democratic governor of South Carolina from 1947 until 1951.
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The Stundists are a Russian evangelical Protestant sect that arose around 1860. They are chiefly found on the lower Dnieper and in other parts of southern Russia, and are said to be the descendants of Russian soldiers converted to Protestantism by their German neighbours, who were settled in the area in agricultural colonies by Catherine II. The Stundists are inclined towards Puritanism and rationalism, and in opposition to the doctrine and authority of the Russian Orthodox church. The Stundists were fiercely attacked by the Orthodox peasantry in 1879 and were often subject to official molestation under the tsars.
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Styles Bridges was an American politician. He was a Republican governor of New Hampshire from 1935 until 1937.
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Subahdar was the title of a governor of a province under the Mogul rule in India. During the British occupation of India, Subahdar was the designation given to a native Captain in the Indian army.
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In the British army the term Subaltern applies to an officer below the rank of captain.
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Suebricht was king of the East Saxons in 709.
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Suenon was king of Denmark in 1047.
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Suenon the Forked-beard was king of Denmark in 991.
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The Suevi were a group of German peoples that lived around the basin of the Elbe around 50 BC.
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Suffragettes were the members of the women's suffrage movement who campaigned for women to be allowed to vote. The movement was abolished in 1918 when women aged 30 were allowed to vote.
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Pierre Andre de Suffren de Saint Tropez was a French sailor. He was born in 1729 and died in 1788. Of a noble family, he entered the navy in 1743 and saw service in the Mediterranean and the West Indies. As an officer of the Order of Malta, he conveyed pilgrims to Jerusalem between 1748 and 1756 and in 1756 was present at the capture of Minorca. In 1757 he was captured by Boscawen and held prisoner until 1763 when he again served in the Mediterranean fighting Barbary pirates. In 1781 he was sent to assist the Dutch at the Cape, saving the Cape from the British by his bold tactics.
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Sufis are Islamic mystics, so named from their garments of wool, known in Arabic as 'suf'. The various orders of Dervish arose from the Sufis.
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The Suk are a Nilotic Negro people inhabiting the area around the Uganda-Kenya border. They are an agricultural people in the hills west of the Kerio valley, and a pastoral people in the plains between Lakes Baringo and Rudolf.
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The Suliotes were a Greco-Albanian tribe living in the pashalik of Yanina where they took refuge from the Turks in the 17th century. They fought for Greek independence, many of them having previously settled in the Ionian Islands.
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The Sumerians were a people that inhabited the southern part of the alluvial basin formed by the River Tigris and the River Euphrates (in what is now Iraq). Their civilisation started in the fourth millennium BC when the first cities with monumental mud-brick architecture appeared. The economic basis for this civilisation was agriculture, mainly producing grain on irrigated land, as well as livestock. The surplus agriculture was traded for materials lacking in the region. most notably metal, timber and precious stones, which stimulated long-distance trade. The characteristic political unit was the city with its surrounding arable land. In the second half of the third millennium attempts were made to unify the country and impose a centralised political and administrative control. The most successful Sumerian state was that ruled by the Third Dynasty of Ur from around 2113 to 4 BC. In the eighteenth century BC Semitic-speaking groups (known as the Amorites) formed a new state, Babylonia, and Sumerian ceased to be a spoken language, although written Sumerian continued to be used for religious purposes for another thousand years.
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Sumner Sewall was an American politician. He was a Republican governor of Maine from 1941 until 1945.
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Sun Yat Sen was the founder and first president of the Chinese Republic. He was born in 1867 near Canton and died in 1925. Educated at the American university at Hawaii, while studying medicine in Hong Kong he abandoned medicine to become a politician and took part in a revolutionary plot in 1895 and upon its discovery fled to England. He was captured in 1896 by the Chinese Legation in London and held prisoner until his release was demanded by the Prime Minister. In 1905 he founded the China Revolutionary League in Europe and Japan and played a large part in the revolution of 1911.
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The Sunni ('lawful') are a branch of orthodox Muslims so called because they accept as their rule of faith and law the Sunna and the Koran. The Sunna deduces the standpoint and usage of Mohammed from his hadiths or traditional sayings and doings. Islamic theology and law were founded by Hanifa at Kufa, Malik at Medina, Shafi at Cairo and Hanbal at Baghdad. All Sunni Muslims while recognising the authority of the six collections containing the Sunna, which were compiled in the 9th century, follow one of the above four systems. The Hanifite prevails among Turks, Tartars, Iraqi Arabs, and Indian Muslims; the Malikite mostly in Africa; the Shafiite in Arabia and Iran; the Hanbalite is localised and not widespread.
Acknowledging the first four caliphs after Mohammed as validly elected, Sunni Muslims regard the authority of the caliphate as political rather than spiritual. This distinguishes them from the Shiah Muslims, mostly in Iran, who maintain that the prophet's true and divinely appointed successor was his son-in-law, Ali.
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Suraj-ud-Dowlah was a Nawab of Bengal. He was born in 1732 and died in 1757. A grandson of Aliverdi Khan, he succeeded his grandfather in 1756. Indignant with the British for concealing one of his fugitive servants, he attacked Calcutta on June the 18th 1756 and after two days' siege entered the city, whereupon occurred the tragedy known as the 'Black Hole of Calcutta'. Six months later Clive took Calcutta on January the 2nd 1757. After his defeat at Plassey, Suraj-ud-Dowlah went on the run but was captured and executed by his rival Mir Jafar.
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Susan Ferrier was a Scottish author. She was born in 1782 at Edinburgh and died in 1854. Her life was chiefly spent in her native town, which was then distinguished by its brilliant literary and professional circles. In 1818 she made her first appearance as an authoress by the publication of the novel of Marriage, which acquired great popularity. The Inheritance appeared in 1824; and Destiny, or the Chief's Daughter, in 1831. The novels of Susan Ferrier are full of a genial humour, and no one has succeeded better in depicting the manners of the upper middle class in Scotland at a time when the national peculiarities were still in a great measure intact.
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Susan Warner was an American author. She was born in 1819 and died in 1885. Under the pseudonym of Elizabeth Wetherell she wrote a series of tales of domestic life including 'The Wide, Wide World'.
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Susanna Centlivre was an Irish playwrite and actress. She was born in 1667 and died in 1723. She was the daughter of a Lincolnshire gentleman named Freeman. After being twice left a widow within a short time of her marriage she took for a third husband Joseph Centlivre, chief cook to Queen Anne. She had some success as an actress, but her fame rests on The Busybody, The Wonder, A Bold Stroke for a Wife, and 14 other plays, all of which were published in a collected edition, 1761. Mrs. Centlivre enjoyed the friendship of Steele, Farquhar, Bowe, and other wits of the day.
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The Susquehannas or Conestogas, were a tribe of American Indians, once inhabiting lands on the Susquehanna River. They waged fierce wars with neighboring tribes, and became so troublesome to Maryland that they were proclaimed public enemies in 1642. In 1652 they ceded lands to the colony. In 1675, after a bitter struggle with the Iroquois, they were overthrown. Some, retreating to Maryland, were attacked by the whites. The Indians then ravaged the frontier until completely cut off. A remnant of the tribe, during a period of excitement against the Indians, was massacred at Lancaster, Pennsylvania in 1763.
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Suzy Bogguss (Susan Bogguss) is an American country and western singer. She was born in 1956 at Aledo, Illinois.
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Sven Anders Hedin was a Swedish traveller and geographer. He was born in 1865 at Stockholm and died in 1952. Educated at Stockholm, Upsala Berlin and Halle, he made himself well acquainted with natural science, especially geology. In 1885 to 1886 he travelled in Persia and Central Asia, in 1890 to 1891, having been appointed secretary to the Swedish mission to the Shah of Persia, he took the opportunity of climbing and measuring the height of Demavend, and made an excursion to Kashgar.
Supported by King Oscar II in 1893 he began a series of exploratory journeys in Central and Eastern Asia, traversing the Pamir plateau, the region around the Lob-Nor lake, northern Tibet, and after many hardships finally reaching Peking (Beijing), from which he returned to Europe across North China and Siberia in 1897.
In 1899 he entered on a similar extended course of travel, further investigating the Lob-Nor region and the connected deserts, and attempting to reach Lhasaa in the guise of a pilgrim, but being turned back by the Tibetans. On his return in 1902 he was ennobled by the King of Sweden, and received various other distinctions, including medals from the Royal Geographical Society. He produced a number of works dealing with his travels and their scientific results, some of them translated into several languages.
From 1903 until 1908 he made extensive jopurneys in the Himalayas and Tibet and, in 1908, made the first detailed map of Tibet. After the Great War he organised and led Sino-Swedish scientific expedition to the northwest provinces of China between 1927 and 1933.
An account of his chief early journeys in English was given in Through Asia (published in 1898), and Central Asia and Tibet (published in 1903).
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The Swahili are a hybrid people of the coastlands and islands of central east Africa descended from the mediaeval Zenj population forming a blend of inter-marriage between aboriginal peoples and Arab settlers over a period of some 2000 years.
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The Swazi are the majority group of people in Swaziland. The Swazi are primarily engaged in cultivating and raising livestock, but many work in industries in South Africa. The Swazi language belongs to the Bantu branch of the Niger-Congo family.
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The Swedenborgians (New Jerusalem Church) are a religious sect named after its founder, Emanuel Swedenborg, and because they believe that his teachings superseded the old form of Christianity and brought in the 'New Jerusalem'. Swedenborg himself founded no church, but his followers organized bodies in sympathy with his teachings. The first church in the United States was founded at Baltimore, in 1792.
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The Sweet Singers were a puritanical religious sect of the reign of Charles II, mainly based in Edinburgh. They burned all story books, ballads, romances, denounced all unchaste words and the printed bible.
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Sweyn III was king of Denmark in 1137 until he was beheaded in 1147.
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Swithelm was king of the East Saxons in 661.
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Swithred was king of the East Saxons in 738.
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The Syanians are a western Georgian tribe of the Grazinian people.
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Sydney Dobell was an English poet. He was born in 1824 and died in 1874. His first poem, The Roman, appeared in 1850, and was favourably received by the critics. Among his other works are Balder, Sonnets on the War, England in Time of War, etc.
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Sydney Howard Gay was an American journalist. He was born in 1814 at Massachusetts and died in 1888. He edited the Anti-Slavery Standard from 1844 until 1857, when he became an editor of the Tribune serving as such until 1866. He was the author of 'an illustrated history of the United States'.
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Sir Syed Ahmed Khan was an Indian educationalist and social reformer. He was born in 1817 and died in 1898. In 1875 he founded the Muslim University at Aligarh.
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Sylvanus Thayer was an American soldier. He was born in 1785 and died in 1873. He was superintendent of the Military Academy at West Point from 1817 to 1833. During his administration the academy became one of the best in the world. From 1833 to 1863 he fortified Boston Harbour.
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Sylvester I was Pope from 314 until 335. He died in 335. The son of Rufinus, a Roman, he was canonised as a saint after his death and his feast day kept on December 31st.
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Sylvester II (born Gerbert) was the first French Pope. He was born in 945 at Aurillac (Auvergne) and died in 1003. By the influence of emperor Otto I he was appointed to the cathedral school at Reims, and was made archbishop or Reims in 991. He was deposed from his position and retired to the court of Otto III whom he accompanied to Italy and in 998 was made archbishop of Ravenna by Pope Gregory V, on whose death he was elected pope. Sylvester II was also an inventor, he invented a pendulum clock, a hydraulic organ and introduced the use of Arabic figures into Europe.
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Sylvester Pennoyer was an American politician. He was a Democratic-Populist governor of Oregon from 1887 until 1895.
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Symbolistes was a name applied to the school of French poets, influential in the latter years of the 19th century, who used symbolic methods of expression.
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The Szlachta were the Polish land owning aristocratic class up until the mid- 20th century.
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