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A C spring is a spring in the form of the letter C.
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CA-Cricket Presents by Computer Associates is a desktop presentation package for the Mac that lets you conceptualise, create, and produce complete presentations including slides, transparencies, speaker's notes, and audience handouts. It includes a copy of Acta Outliner, which can be used during the conceptualisation stage of a presentation. A hotlink can be created between the Acta Outliner and the presentation so edits made to the outline are reflected in the presentation. You can produce charts, overhead slides, flipcharts, illustrations, and tables complete with legends and captions. The product includes freehand painting and drawing capabilities and a graded background feature for creating the background for your shows.
CA-Cricket Presents' basic business chart capabilities include a data-entry screen or importing files from spreadsheets and generating charts from the data. The tabling tool lets you create matrices to easily handle numbers and word charts.
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Caballine aloes or horse aloes is an inferior and impure kind of aloes that was formerly used in veterinary practice.
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In metal working, cabbling is the process of breaking up the flat masses into which wrought iron is first hammered, in order that the pieces may be reheated and wrought into iron bars.
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A cable road is a form of railway on which the cars (known as cable cars) are moved by a continuously running endless rope or cable operated by a stationary motor.
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In computer terms, a cache is a region of very fast memory in a computer that is used to temporarily store a block of data retrieved from a mass storage device such as RAM or a disk. When the CPU requires a block of data it first refers to the cache, as accessing that memory is faster than accessing the storage device itself.
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In computer terms, cache-busting is preventing web browsers and proxy servers from serving content from their cache, so as to force the browser or proxy server to fetch a fresh copy of each web site file in response to each user request. Cache-busting is used by web site administrators to try and provide a more accurate count (hit-meter) of the number of the actual requests for files or web pages.
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Cacodyl is a colourless, poisonous, arsenical liquid. It is spontaneously inflammable and possesses an intensely disagreeable odour. It is the type of a series of compounds analogous to the nitrogen compounds known as hydrazines.
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Cacodylic acid (alkargen) is a white, crystalline, deliquescent substance obtained by the oxidation of cacodyl. It has the properties of an exceedingly stable acid.
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Cadmium is a comparatively rare element related to zinc, and occurring in some zinc ores. It is a bluish-white metal, both ductile and malleable with the symbol Cd. It was discovered by Stromeyer in 1817, who named it from its association with zinc or zinc ore. Cadmium is used as the basis of a number of pigments.
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Cadmium red is a pigment comprising a compound of cadmium, sulphur and selenium. It is a brilliant red pigment, very opaque with good staining power, fast to light and unaffected by exposure to sulphur fumes and resistant to heat.
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Cadmium yellow is a compound of cadmium and sulphur, of an intense yellow colour, used as a pigment.
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Caesium is an alkaline metal discovered by Robert Bunsen in 1860, by spectral analysis, in the mineral water of Durkheim. It also occurs in the mineral pollux. Caesium is a soft metal closely resembling potassium, and is characterized by a spectrum containing two bright blue lines, along with others in the red, yellow and green.
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Caffeic acid is an acid obtained from coffee tannin, as a yellow crystalline substance.
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Caffeine (Theine or methyl-theobromine) is a white, bitter, crystalline alkaloid usually derived from coffee or tea and used in medicine as a nervous system stimulant. It was discovered in coffee by Runge in 1820, and in tea by Oudry in 1827.
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Caffetannic acid is a variety of tannin obtained from coffee berries.
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Cahuecite is an explosive which was invented by Cahue in 1875.
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A caisson is a water-tight box, usually of sheet iron, and constructed so that it may be floated or sunk at will. Caissons are used for two distinct purposes. 1) for closing the entrance to docks, the caissons being of two general types, floating and sliding. Floating caissons include those which, when the height of the water inside and outside of the dock is the same, are raised by their natural buoyancy from the bottom, and may be floated out of their position against the sill into a recess provided for the purpose, leaving the entrance open. Sliding caissons fulfil the same purpose, but instead of floating are drawn back on a plane sliding surface or on rollers which bear some portion of their weight. 2) As foundations to a dam, quay wall or bridge, the caissons being so constructed as to be capable of being floated into the required position, and there sunk.
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Cajaputene is a colourless or greenish oil extracted from cajuput.
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Calabar is a powerful narcotic poison derived from the Calabar Bean. It operates as a purgative and an emetic. These properties provided it with its use as an ordeal in Africa where persons suspected of witchcraft were administered calabar beans. If the beans caused purging the victim was guilty, and if vomiting they were innocent.
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Calabarine is an alkaloid resembling physostigmine and occurring with it in the calabar bean.
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In chemistry, the term calcigenous describes substances which exhibit a tendency to form, or to become, a calx or earth-like substance on being oxidized or burnt. Such as magnesium and calcium for example.
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Calcination is a term used in metallurgy to denote the operation of roasting or burning ores. The process varies according to the nature of the ore, and may have the objective to expel certain volatile constituents such as sulphur or arsenic, or to produce an oxide by exposing the heated ore to air. Chalk is calcined to expel the carbon dioxide and produce quicklime.
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A calcinatory is a vessel used in calcination.
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Calcium is a lustrous silver-white brittle alkaline metal element with the symbol Ca. Its oxide occurs widely in nature as lime. It is a member of the alkaline earth group of elements.
Calcium occurs widely in nature, as in its compounds calcium carbonate or limestone,
calcium sulphate or gypsum, calcium fluoride (fluorspar), and calcium phosphate (apatite).
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Calcium Alginate is used in many foods for binding and is also used as a film-former in peel-off masks. It is a stabiliser for oil-in-water emulsions.
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Calcium ammonium is a compound formed by exposing calcium to ammonia gas. It is a bronze-coloured substance which catches fire on exposure to air.
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Calcium Carbide is a substance formed by heating quicklime and carbon in an electric furnace. It is a greyish crystalline substance which decomposes immediately on coming into contact with water, generating acetylene.
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Calcium carbonate is a natural occurring salt that is found in limestone, chalk, and marble. It is used as a pigment and for pigment prolonging.
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Calcium Chloride is customarily used in road salt and antifreeze. It is used in cosmetics as an emulsifier and texturizer. If taken internally, it can cause constipation and stomach problems. It can also cause lung difficulties if inhaled during manufacturing or processing but it's toxicity in cosmetics is unknown.
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A calcium light (or Drummond light) is an intense light produced by the incandescence of a stick or ball of lime in the flame of a combination of oxygen and hydrogen gases, or of oxygen and coal gas.
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Calcium propionate is a food additive used to prevent mould growth on bread and rolls.
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Calendar Creator Plus makes it easy to maintain an up-to-the-minute, annotated calendars on a PC. It handles all calendar needs and eliminates the clutter of paper calendars.
Calendar Creator Plus lets you create customised overlays that include listings such as scheduled events, projects, personal and employee vacation days. By merging multiple overlays with the basic calendar date template, an unlimited number of calendars can be created. Calendar Creator Plus supports two types of events; fixed events and floating events.
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A calender is a machine consisting of two or more cylinders (calenders) revolving so nearly in contact with each other that cloth or paper passed between them is smoothed and glazed by their pressure, or some other kind of finish is imparted to the surface - a process known as calendering.
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Calendering is the operation by which paper, cotton and linen goods are exposed to great pressure to give the surface a glazed finish. The calender consists of two or more cylinders of steel, wood or paper, revolving at different speeds; in this way the material is both pressed and rubbed and the glazed surface produced.
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Calendulin is a gummy or mucilaginous, tasteless substance obtained from the marigold or calendula, and analogous to bassorin.
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Caliche is naturally occurring, crude sodium nitrate found in deposits a few feet below the surface in South America. It contains about 20 to 50 percent sodium nitrate and traces of sodium iodate.
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A calliper compass (also known as callipers) is a device with curved legs used used to measure the bore of cannon, small-arms etc, and also in phrenology and medicine for measuring the head and other curved bodies.
Research Calliper Compass
Calomel (meaning beautiful black) is a mild chloride of mercury. It is a heavy, white or yellowish-white substance, insoluble and tasteless, much used in medicine as a mercurial and purgative; mercurous chloride. It occurs in nature as the mineral horn quicksilver and is prepared synthetically by subliming a mixture of mercury and mercuric chloride, or by grinding in a mortar mercuric sulphate with as much mercury as it already contains, and heating the mixture with common salt in a retort until the mercury sublimes. The calomel is thus produced as a white powder.
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In physics, calorescence is the conversion of obscure radiant heat into light; the transmutation of rays of heat into others of higher refrangibility. A peculiar transmutation of the invisible calorific rays, observable beyond the red rays of the spectrum of solar and electric light, into visible luminous rays, by passing them through a solution of iodine in bisulphide of carbon, which intercepts the luminous rays and transmits the calorific. The latter, when brought to a focus, produce a heat strong enough to ignite combustible substances, and to heat up metals to incandescence; the less refrangible calorific rays being converted into rays of higher refrangibility, whereby they become luminous.
Research Calorescence
Calorie is the metric unit of measurement of heat. It is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water from 14.5 to 15.5 degrees centigrade.
Research Calorie
A calorimeter is an apparatus for measuring absolute quantities of heat or the specific or latent heat of bodies, as an instrument for measuring the heat given out by a body in cooling from the quantity of ice it melts or from the rise of temperature it produces in water around it.
Research Calorimeter
Calotype is the process of producing photographs by the action of light upon paper impregnated with silver iodide or silver nitrate, which are then developed with gallic acid producing a negative image. The process was invented by Dr William Talbot in 1833 and improved upon by both himself and later Scott Archer in 1851.
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Calumbin is a bitter principle extracted as a white crystalline substance from the calumba root.
Research Calumbin
Calx was a term formerly applied to the residium of a metal or mineral which has been subjected to violent heat, burning, or calcination.
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In mechanics, a cam is a revolving disc (commonly heart-shaped) with a curved surface, or a cylinder with grooves used to give a variable or reciprocating motion to other bodies, which slide or roll in contact with it. Any desired motion may be transmitted by suitably shaping the periphery of the cam.
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Cambistry is a now obsolete term, formerly describing the science of financial exchange.
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A camcorder is a hand-held combined video camera and video recorder, used for recording motion events directly, rather than relaying the data to a separate recording device.
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A camera is a device used in photography for capturing photographic pictures or television pictures. The camera as we know it was originally known as the camera obscura, a device used for both projecting images on to paper for sketching, and on to sensitised paper for photography, in distinction from the camera lucida, which was a similar, portable device without an enclosed box, used solely for projecting an image on to paper for sketching.
Photographic cameras have been produced in a variety of forms, but the basic principal remains the same. A fast opening and closing flap, called a shutter, allows light to enter the body of the camera through a small hole, called the aperture, and fall upon a light sensitive medium; originally a paper, glass or plastic material impregnared with some chemical such as silver iodide, later an electronic light sensor.
Photographic cameras are divided into several types: compact, single lens reflex (SLR) and medium format being the most common. Compact cameras are generally simple to operate devices used to capture low quality, domestic photographs to serve as reminders of events. SLR cameras have lots of adjustable settings and detachable lenses to allow a multitude of different lenses to be fitted for long distance and close-up photography and are widely used by professional photographers. Medium format cameras use a relatively large light sensitive medium to produce very high quality large prints, and are sometimes used by portrait photographers.
Research Camera
A camera Lucida is an optical instrument employed to facilitate the sketching of objects from nature by producing a reflected picture of them upon paper. Wollaston's apparatus is one of the commonest. The essential part is a totally-reflecting prism with four angles, one of which is 90 degrees, the opposite one 135 degrees, and the other two each 67 degrees 30 minutes. One of the two faces which contain the right angle is turned towards the object to be sketched. Rays falling in a straight line on this face, are totally reflected from the face to the next face whence they are again totally reflected to the fourth face, from which they emerge in a straight line. The operator's eye placed so as to receive the emergent rays will see an image of the object and by placing the sketching paper below the image may be traced with a pencil. As the paper, for convenience of drawing, must be at a distance of about a foot, a concave lens, with a focal length of something less than a foot, is placed close in front of the prism in drawing distant objects. By raising or lowering the prism in its stand, the image of the object to be sketched may be made to coincide with the plane of the paper. The prism is mounted in such a way that it can be rotated either about a horizontal or a vertical axis; and its top is usually covered with a movable plate of blackened metal, having a semicircular notch at one edge, for the observer to look through. This form of camera has undergone various modifications. It is very convenient on account of its portability.
Research Camera Lucida
Camera obscura was the original name, used around 1900, for what we now call simply a camera. The original camera obscura was an optical instrument employed for exhibiting the images of objects in their forms and colours, so that they may be traced and a picture drawn, or may be represented by photography. A simple camera obscura is presented by a darkened chamber into which no light is permitted to enter excepting by a small hole in the window-shutter. A picture of the objects opposite the hole will then be seen on the wall, or on a white screen placed opposite the opening. Rays of light passing through a convex lens being reflected from a mirror (which is at a slope of 45 degrees) to a glass plate where they form an image that may be traced. Another arrangement is a kind of tent surrounded by opaque curtains, and having at its top a revolving lantern, containing a lens with its axis horizontal, and a mirror placed behind it at a slope of 45 degrees, to reflect the transmitted light downwards on to the paper.
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Campanology is strictly speaking the science of bells, dealing with all aspects of bells, but the term is generally restricted to bell ringing.
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Camphene is a solid terpene occurring in the oil of ginger. It is oxidised by chromic acid to form camphor.
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Camphine is the trade name of a purified spirit of turpentine formerly used for burning in lamps, and generally prepared by distilling turpentine with quicklime. Camphine gives a very brilliant light when burned in a lamp, but, to prevent smoking, the lamp must have a very strong draught. With oxygen it forms camphor.
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Camphor is a whitish translucent substance, of a granular or foliated fracture, and somewhat unctuous to the touch, which is mostly extracted from two or three kinds of trees of the laurel tribe. It has a bitterish aromatic taste and a strong characteristic smell. In chemical character it is one of the ketones. The common camphor of the shops, is obtained from Camphora officinarum, the camphor laurel, a native of China and Japan, now naturalized in many other countries.
The common camphor is obtained from the wood by distillation and sublimation. Borneo camphor, on the other hand, is not procured by distillation, but is found in masses, secreted naturally in cavities in the trunk and greater branches. Numerous other vegetables, such as thyme, rosemary, sage, etc, are found to yield camphor by distillation.
In medicine camphor is used both as an external and internal stimulant. In small doses it acts as an anodyne and antispasmodic; in large doses it acts as a poison. Its effluvia being very noxious to insects, it is much used to protect specimens in natural history. It readily dissolves in alcohol, oils, etc, and in this way is much used as a liniment. It evaporates or volatilizes at ordinary temperatures. Camphor is also used in the manufacture of celluloid.
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A camphorate is a salt of camphoric acid.
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Camphoric acid is a white crystallisable substance obtained from the oxidation of camphor.
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Camwood is a red dye-wood imported from tropical West Africa, and obtained from the Baphia nitida tree. The wood is of a very fine colour and is often turned to make knife-handles and similar articles. The dye obtained from it is brilliant, but not permanent.
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Canada Balsam is a fluid oleoresin obtained from the balsam fir, common in Canada and the USA. Canada balsam solidifies upon exposure to the air, but remains plastic. It is used in medicine, microscopy and as a plasticiser in making varnish and was at one time used as a cement in the manufacture of compound lenses by opticians as its refractive index is almost as good as that of glass.
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A canal is an artificial water-course for the transportation of goods or passengers by boats or ships, or for purposes of drainage or irrigation. The canals most familiar to ordinary readers are for navigation. These consist usually of a number of different sections, each on one level throughout its course, but differing in relative height from the others. From one section to another boats are transferred by means of locks, or it may be by inclines or lifts.
The lock is a water-tight enclosure with gates at either end, constructed between two successive sections of a canal. When a vessel is descending, water is let into the lock until it is on a level with the higher water, and thus permits the vessel to enter; the upper gates are then closed, and by the lower gates being gradually opened, the water in the lock falls to the level of the lower water, and the vessel passes out. In ascending the operation is reversed.
The incline conveys the vessel from one reach to another, generally on a specially-constructed carriage running on rails, by means of drums and cables.
The lift consists of two counterbalancing. troughs, one going up as the other descends, carrying the vessel from the higher to the lower level, or vice versa.
Works of great magnitude in the way of cuttings, embankments, aqueducts, bridges, tunnels, reservoirs for water-supply, etc, are often necessary in constructing canals. Canals have been known from remote times, Egypt being intersected at an early period by canals branching off from the Nile to distant parts of the country, for purposes of irrigation and navigation. Under the Ptolemies, before the Christian era, there existed a canal between the Red Sea and the Nile. In China, also, canals were early made on a very large scale. In Holland, where the country is flat and water abundant, canals were constructed as early as the 12th century. The lock, however, was not invented until the 15th century, both the Dutch and the Italians claiming the honour. Since then Europe has been provided with numerous canals, which being connected usually with navigable rivers, give access by water to most parts of its interior.
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Candellia Wax is a herbal wax used in lipsticks and in creams and as a replacement for rubber.
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A candle is a solid cylindrical rod of some fatty substance, with a small bundle of loosely-twisted threads placed longitudinally in its centre, used for a portable light.
The chief material traditionally used for making candles was tallow, either in a pure state or in mixture with other fatty substances, as palm-oil, spermaceti, wax, etc. Since about 1900 paraffin (wax) candles have been made in considerable quantities also.
Ordinary tallow candles are either dipped or moulded. The former, generally composed of the coarser tallow, are made by attaching a number of separate wicks to a frame and dipping the whole into a cistern of melted tallow as often as may be necessary to give the candle the required thickness.
Moulded candles, as their name implies, are formed in moulds. These, made generally of pewter, are hollow cylinders of the length of the candle, and open at both ends, but provided at the upper end with a conical cap, in which there is a hole for the wick. A number of these moulds are inserted in a wooden frame or trough with their heads downwards; the wick is then drawn in through the top hole by means of a wire and kept stretched while the moulds are filled by running melted tallow from a boiler into the trough. Considerable improvements were made in the manufacture of candles during the 19th century. One of the most important of these consisted in not employing the whole of the fatty or oily substances, but in decomposing them, and then using only the stearin of the former and the palmitine of the latter class of substances.
Early wax candles were formed by wicks, properly cut and twisted, being suspended by a ring over a basin of liquid wax, which was poured on the tops of the wicks until a sufficient thickness was obtained, when after, the candles, still hot, were placed on a smooth walnut table, kept constantly wet, and rolled upon it by means of a flat piece of boxwood.
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Cannabene is a colourless oil obtained from hemp by distillation, and possessing its intoxicating properties.
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Cannabin is a poisonous resin extracted from hemp (Cannabis Indica). The narcotic effects of hashish are due to this resin.
Research Cannabin
In watch making, the cannon pinion is the small cogged wheel to which the minute hand of a watch is attached.
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Cantharidin is the active principle of the cantharis, or Spanish fly. It is a volatile, acrid, bitter solid, crystallizing in four-sided prisms.
Research Cantharidin
In engineering, a cantilever is a projecting beam, truss, or bridge unsupported at the outer end; one which overhangs.
Research Cantilever
Canvas is a precision drawing package for the Mac that lets you create presentation materials, desktop publishing images, or architectural renderings. Its large selection of powerful, easy-to-use tools makes it one of the more popular drawing programs. Icons and menu options provide continuous multipoint Bezier curves, instant autotrace conversion of bitmap images to unlimited drawing layers, 1/65,000th of an inch precision, and text and graphics in 16.7 million colours plus PostScript grey scales in 1% increments.
For touching up clipped or scanned art, Canvas provides a number of painting tools which can be used on the same layers as the drawing tools. Canvas supports 24-bit colour on the Macintosh II, hairlines to 1/1000th of an inch, auto-dimensioning of lines and arcs, and a zoom capacity ranging from 3% to 3,200%. The program adds area and perimeter calculations, a peel-away ruler, PixelPaintcompatible colour palettes, smooth multipoint polygons, and special effects such as object rotation in one degree increments, distortion, and one or two point perspective.
Canvas also features object libraries (macros) that function as extensions to the drawing toolbox. Up to 32 objects can be added to any macro library, and macro libraries can be saved as individual files. A desk accessory version of Canvas can be invoked while working with other programs and provides approximately 80%, of the program's capabilities. The program also has a bitmap conversion option for transforming scanned colour or grey scale images into one of 15 predefined halftone or dithered images (for the Macintosh II only).
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Caoutchouc is an elastic gummy substance, chemically a hydrocarbon, contained in the milky juice of a number of tropical trees of various orders, among the chief being the Siphonia elastica (Hevea elastica) and others of the same genus growing in South America. The name is also used as an equivalent of india-rubber, but strictly caoutchouc is only the chief ingredient of india-rubber. The crude india-rubber is most commonly obtained by making incisions in the trunks of the trees, whence the sap exudes in the form of a milky fluid which gradually thickens and solidifies.
Caoutchouc is a non-conductor of electricity and a bad conductor of heat. It is not dissolved by water, hot or cold, but chloroform, oil of turpentine, bisulphide of carbon, etc, dissolve it. It was not until about the year 1736 that india-rubber (now popularly known as simply rubber) was known in Europe. It was at first only used to rub out pencil-marks, but before the end of the 19th century it was used to render leather and other substances water-tight, and in 1823 Macintosh took out a patent for the waterproof materials prepared with caoutchouc which bear his name. Latterly its uses have become innumerable. Gutta percha is a similar substance to caoutchouc, and is often popularly confounded with it.
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A cable consists of one or more conductors in an insulating covering. If there are two separate conductors, they act as the two plates of a condenser, the insulation between them forming the dielectric. The cable therefore possesses capacitance. A similar effect occurs in the case of a single conductor using an earth return, particularly if the cable is enclosed in an earthed metal sheath or is laid underground or in water. The effect of the capacitance is to hinder current from reaching the other end until the cable itself has been charged. This delaying action is of special importance in telegraph and telephone cables, in which signalling is carried on by intermittent or rapidly varying currents. There is an appreciable capacitance even between bare overhead conductors such as those used in high-voltage power transmission lines.
Research Capacitance in Cables
A capacitor is an electrical device consisting of two conductive bodies separated by insulating material and thus possessing capacitance.
Research Capacitor
Capillarity is the general name for certain phenomena exhibited by fluid surfaces when the vessels containing the liquid are very narrow, and also exhibited by that portion of the fluid surface which is in close proximity to the sides of a larger vessel, or to any inserted object.
Thus if an open tube of small bore be inserted in water, it will be noted that the liquid rises within it above its former level to a height varying inversely as the diameter of the bore, and that the surface of this column is more or less concave in form. The same phenomenon occurs in any fluid which will wet the tube; but in the case of a fluid like mercury, which does not wet the glass, the converse phenomenon appears, the liquid being depressed in the tube below its former level, and the portion within the tube exhibiting a convex surface.
Similarly round the sides of the respective vessels, and round the outsides of the inserted tubes, we find in the first case an ascension, and in the second a depression of the liquid, with a corresponding concavity or convexity at its extreme edge. Two parallel plates immersed in the liquids give kindred results. As these phenomena occur equally in air and in vacua they cannot be attributed to the action of the atmosphere, but depend upon molecular actions taking place between the particles of the liquid itself, and between the liquid and the solid, these actions being confined to a very thin layer forming the superficial boundary of the fluid.
Every liquid, in fact, behaves as if a thin film in a state of tension formed its external layer; and although the theory that such tension really exists in the superficial layer must be regarded as a scientific fiction, yet it adequately represents the effects of the real cause, whatever that may be. Scientific calculations with respect to capillary depressions and elevations proceed, therefore, on the working theory that the superficial film at the free surface is to be regarded as pressing the liquid inwards, or pulling it outwards according as the surface is convex or concave - the convex or concave film being known as the meniscus (crescent). The part which capillarity plays among natural phenomena is a very varied one. By it the fluids circulate in the porous tissues of animal bodies; the sap rises in plants, and moisture is absorbed from air and soil by the foliage and roots. For the same reason a sponge or lump of sugar, or a piece of blotting-paper soaks in moisture, the oil rises in the wick of a lamp, etc.
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Caproic acid (hexoic acid) is one of the products of the butyric fermentation of sugar. It can be made by the oxidation of hexyl alcohol, and is an oily liquid with a faint disagreeable odour.
Research Caproic Acid
Capsicin is an alkaloid and the active principle of the capsules of Capsicum annuum. It has a resinous aspect and a burning taste.
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A carbide is a compound of carbon and another element.
Research Carbides
Carbohydrate is one of the three main classes of foods and a source of energy.
Carbohydrates are mainly sugars and starches that the body breaks down into glucose. The body also uses carbohydrates to make the substance glycogen that is stored in the liver and muscles for future use. If the body does not have enough insulin or cannot use the insulin it has, then the body will not be able to use carbohydrates for energy the way it should. This condition is called diabetes.
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Carbolic acid (phenol, phenic acid, hydroxybenzene) is a strong poison used as an antiseptic and in painting, distilled from coal-tar. It was discovered by Laurent in 1846. When pure, carbolic acid is colourless and crystalline, but it is usually found as an oily liquid, often coloured, with a burning taste and the odour of creosote.
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Carbon is a non-metallic, chiefly trivalent element found native (as in diamond and graphite) or as a constituent of coal, petroleum, and asphalt, of limestone and other bicarbonates, and of organic compounds or obtained artificially in varying degrees of purity especially as carbon black, lampblack, activated charcoal and coke. It has the symbol C and is contained in all life forms.
The diamond is the purest form of carbon; in the different varieties of charcoal, in coal, anthracite, etc, it is more or less mixed with other substances. Pure charcoal is a black, brittle, light, and inodorous substance. It is usually the remains of some vegetable body from which all the volatile matter has been expelled by heat; but it may be obtained from most organic matters, animal as well as vegetable, by ignition in close vessels. Carbon, being one of those elements which exist in various distinct forms, is an example of what is called allotropy. The compounds of this element are more numerous than those of all the other elements taken together. With hydrogen especially it forms a very large number of compounds, called hydrocarbons, some of which have latterly become of the greatest economic importance. With oxygen carbon forms only two compounds, but union between the two elements is easily effected.
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Carbon black is a black pigment comprising practically pure carbon produced by the incomplete combustion of natural marsh gas. Carbon black is a fine powder with a good staining strength, light in weight and with high oil-absorbency. It is used as a pigment, working well with water and fairly well with oil.
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Carbon Copy Plus by Microrim is a menu-driven remote control program for IBM-compatible microcomputers that allows the user to control and/or monitor one PC from another over a communications link. Suitable for support purposes and typically used with standard dial-up modems, Carbon Copy Plus connects two PCs so their screens and keyboards are linked as one. Whatever the remote user sees on-screen will be seen on the local screen. Users can open up a movable chat window where they can type messages to each other. Whatever is displayed on the host screen is displayed on the guest screen. Carbon Copy Plus includes a universal graphics translator, that automatically translates CGA, EGA, VGA, Hercules, and PS/2 graphics images when dissimilar graphics adapters are used in the host and guest PC. Files can be transferred between machines using commands similar to those in DOS. Carbon Copy Plus supports background file transfer, allowing the host PC to send or receive files while working in a foreground application.
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Carbon dioxide (carbonic anhydride or carbonic acid) is a colourless, poisonous, heavy gas - twenty-two times as heavy as hydrogen - composed of carbon and oxygen with 12 parts by weight of carbon and 32 of oxygen. It is the final product of the complete combustion of carbon. Carbon dioxide is present as about five percent of exhaled air. Carbon dioxide has been variously known in the past as carbonic dioxode, carbonic acid and fixed air.
Carbon dioxide acts as a narcotic poison when present-in the air to the extent of only 4 or 5 percent. It may be tested for by leaving a white precipitate when bubbled through lime-water. It is disengaged from fermenting liquors and decomposing vegetable and animal substances, and forms the choke-damp of mines. From its weight it has a tendency to subside into low places, vaults and wells, rendering some low-lying places, as the upas valley of Java, and many caves, uninhabitable.
Carbon dioxide has a pleasant, acidulous, pungent taste, and aerated beverages of all kinds - beer, champagne, and carbonated mineral water - owe their refreshing qualities to its presence, for though poisonous when taken into the lungs, it is agreeable when taken into the stomach. This acid is formed and given out during the respiration of animals, and in all ordinary combustions, from the oxidation of carbon in the fuel. It exists in large quantity in all limestones and marbles. It is evolved from the coloured parts of the flowers of plants both by night and day, and from the green parts of plants during the night. During the day plants absorb it from the atmosphere through their leaves, and it forms an important part of their nourishment.
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Carbon disulphide is a compound formed by burning carbon in sulphur vapour. It is a colourless, extremely volatile liquid, boiling at 46 degrees Celsius, non-miscible with water, and both the liquid and its vapour are highly inflammable. It is largely used
As a solvent for sulphur, phosphorus, iodine, etc and as a fat extractor.
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Carbon Monoxide (carbonic oxide) is a colourless, tasteless, odourless, extremely poisonous gas produced when carbon is burned in a limited supply of air. Carbon monoxide burns with a pale blue flame.
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In early electric lighting, carbon points were two pieces of very hard, compact carbon, between which the electric current was broken, so that the resistance which they offered to the passage of the current produced a light of extraordinary brilliancy.
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Carbon tetrachloride is a substance resembling chloroform in odour, and prepared by the action of chlorine on carbon disulphide. It is a colourless liquid with a pleasant odour used as a solvent for many organic substances. It is non-inflammable and as such is used as a substitute for benzene in degreasing woollen goods and in dry-cleaning. It attacks most metals, lead and tin being most resistant to it. Carbon tetrachloride is registered under the trade name Benzinoform.
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A carbonate is a salt formed by the union of carbon dioxide with a base element, such as calcium carbonate; sodium carbonate; barium carbonate; sodium bi-carbonate. Many of the carbonates are extensively used in the arts and in medicine.
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Carbonation is the process by which a substance combines with carbon, or carbon compounds, to become a carbonate.
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In chemistry, carboxyl is a form of a substance with the monovalent methyl united to the monovalent group.
Carboxyl is a characteristic part of a large number of organic acids.
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In chemistry, a carboxyl group is a univalent organic radical (-COOH) which is the functional group of all the carbolic acids.
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A carboy is a large globular wicker-covered glass bottle used for holding acid or other corrosive liquids.
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A carburettor is a device for charging air with a hydrocarbon.
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A card is an instrument for combing, opening and breaking wool, flax etc. It is made by inserting bent teeth of wire into a thick piece of leather and nailing this to a rectangular board.and nailing this to a piece of rectangular board to which a handle is attached. But wool and cotton are now generally carded in mills by teeth fixed on a wheel moved by machinery. The word card is derived through the French carde, a teasel, from the Latin carduus, a thistle, teasels having been used once for cards.
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Cardbox Plus is a file manager that works well where a card-index solution might have been used. It has unique indexing facilities including the ability to highlight and search on free-format comment text. Cardbox Plus is ideal for mailing list and simple customer record applications.
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Carding is the process wool, cotton, flax, etc, undergo previous to spinning, to lay the fibres all in one direction, and remove all foreign substances. Carding is carried out using a form of comb called a card.
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Carmine is a brilliant, deep, fiery red colouring derived from the cochineal insect. It was first prepared by a Franciscan monk at Pisa and manufacture began in 1650. Carmine is used as an artists' colour and as a glass colour, works well with water and oil, but fades badly.
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Carnauba wax is a yellowish-white or green coloured, sticky exudation found on the leaves, berries and stalks of the carnauba palm (Copernicia cerifera), which is found in South America particularly in Brazil. It is used to polish leather, make candles and glaze fruit.
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For a reversible heat engine a Carnot cycle consists of the following changes, in the order stated, in the physical condition of a gas: (1) isothermal expansion (i.e. without change of temperature), (2) adiabatic expansion (i.e. without change of heat content), (3) Isothermal compression and (4) adiabatic compression. The principles derived from a study of this cycle are important in the fundamentals of heat and thermodynamics. The absolute scale of temperature is based on this cycle.
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A Cartesian Diver is a hydrostatic toy consisting of a little hollow figure, which has a small opening some distance below the top, and is rather lighter than an equal volume of water, so it can float. The figure is placed in a bottle of water closed with a bladder of rubber so as to exclude air. On pressing the bladder the air inside the figure is compressed drawing a little water into the figure which causes it to sink. Removing the pressure on the bladder excludes the water from the figure and it rises again.
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Carthamin (Carthamic Acid) is an astringent bitter principle obtained from the flowers of the arthamus tinctorius. It is a red pigment used in silk-dyeing and the preparation of rouge.
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Cascading style sheets (CSS) are an element of web page design first drafted in early 1996, to provide HTML documents published on the world wide web with a means of suggesting the appearance of the document in terms of typefaces, colours and general appearance. A style, in terms of a cascading style sheet style, is simply a rule which instructs a browser how to display a particular HTML tag, for example what colour to display text within <H1> </H1> tags. Styles can also suggest positioning for divisions of content, text and images. The World Wide Web Consortium, realising the scope of browsers and computer hardware available and that many manufacturers would be selective in their support for different styles, were keen to emphasise that styles should suggest, not dictate, the appearance of HTML documents when rendered, and to stress to web designers that unsupported styles would simply be ignored by a browser. The power of cascading style sheets to the designer lies in the premise that once a style rule has been decided upon, it only needs to be defined once, with many
pages loading the same cascading style sheet definition and applying the same, uniform rules to their HTML tags, rather than needing to adjust the properties of every occurrence of the same HTML tag on multiple pages.
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Cascarilla Bark is obtained from the twigs and branches of Croton Eleuteria, a small tree of the Euphorbiaceae, found in the Bahama Islands. Its outer layer is a greyish-white cork with a chequered appearance. The bark has a pleasant aromatic odour and when burned gives an agreeable scent, and is therefore used in incense.
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Case-hardening is a process whereby iron objects have their outside layer converted to steel. The object is put in a box containing carbon and is heated until red hot. Then it is immersed in cold water where upon a layer of steel forms on the object.
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Casein is a protein found in milk. It can be separated by the action of acid, the enzyme rennin, or bacteria (souring); it is also the main protein in cheese. Casein is used as a protein supplement in the treatment of malnutrition and is used commercially in cosmetics, glues, pigments and as a sizing for coating paper. Casein is insoluble in water, but is freely soluble in alkaline solutions. Casein is neither coagulated spontaneously, like fibrin, nor by heat, like albumen, but by the action of acids alone, and constituting the chief part of the nitrogenized matter contained in it. Cheese made from skimmed milk and well pressed is fully half casein. Casein is one of the most important elements of animal food as found in milk and leguminous plants.
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Cast iron is a cheap but valuable constructional material, most commonly used for automobile
engine blocks. Cast iron is obtained from the blast-furnace by running the fused metal into moulds prepared for the purpose. The moulds are in the form of long narrow channels, from which the iron, when it has cooled and solidified, is taken in bars called pigs, between 3 and 4 feet long and 3 or 4 inches broad. Cast iron is partly refined pig iron, which is very fluid when molten and highly suitable for shaping by casting; it contains too many impurities such as carbon to be readily shaped in any other way. Solid cast iron is heavy and can absorb great shock but is very brittle.
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Casting (founding) is the process of producing solid objects by pouring molten material into a shaped mould and allowing it to cool.
Casting is used to shape such materials as glass and plastics, as well as metals and alloys. The casting of metals has been practiced for more than 6,000 years, using first copper and bronze, then iron.
The traditional method of casting metal is sand casting. The foundry floor was composed for several feet deep of a loamy sand, in which deep pits were some times sunk to buty large moulds. A wooden pattern of the object to be cast having been made, was pressed firmly down into this loamy sand, the sand being shovelled up all around, level with the top of the pattern and well rammed down. The pattern was then lifted out of the sand, and any small pieces of sand which may have fallen into the mould were carefully blown away, and some finely-powdered charcoal sifted over the surface. The molten metal was then poured into the mould until it was full. The whole was then covered with sand to keep the air from it while it cools. An open horizontal bed of sand was sufficient for casting many articles, but with articles of a more complex form and not too large, a frame or box, called a flask was generally employed to hold together the sand used in the casting, the number of flasks varying according to the form and parts of thee mould.
In ordinary operations the pattern was laid on a board known as the turn-over board, and the flask placed over it, the sand being carefully rammed into the flask until it was full. Another board, known as the bottom-board, was then laid upon it. The flask was then turned over, the first or turn-over board taken off, the one side of the pattern uncovered, a fine facing of sand spread upon the surface to prevent adhesion, after which a second flask, called the cope, sometimes made with crossbars to strengthen it and help to hold the sand, was placed upon it and sand carefully rammed in. The cope or second flask was then lifted off, the sand which it contains carrying the impression of the upper side of the pattern; the pattern in the lower part of the flask, or drag, was then carefully drawn out, and any injuries which the mould receives during the operation repaired. Holes or passages were then cut into the sand for pouring in the metal, all loose sand carefully removed, the cope replaced and secured to the drag by clamps. The mould was then ready for the molten metal. In pouring, the metal was generally run through two or three different passages at the same time to prevent it losing fluidity by cooling. It was only in lighter castings that sand, of the proper degree of dryness, porosity, and adhesiveness, was used.
In heavy castings the mould was usually made of loam, which is more adhesive, and in complicated articles the making of the mould was often a difficult process. Small articles of simple form and of easily-fusible alloys, such as bullets, printing types, etc, were often cast in metal moulds. Articles of sculpture were usually cast in plaster of Paris, which, when mixed with water, runs into the finest lines of a mould and takes a most exact impression. The variety of articles made by casting was very great: boilers, cisterns, cylinders, pumps, railings, grates, cannon, cooking-utensils, and many objects of decorative art.
Permanent metal moulds called dies are also used for casting, in particular, small items in mass-production processes where molten metal is injected under pressure into cooled dies. Continuous casting is a method of shaping bars and slabs that involves pouring molten metal into a hollow, water-cooled mould of the desired cross section.
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Castor is a reddish-brown bitter substance obtained from the anal glands of the beaver and used in perfume and medicine.
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Castor oil is a pale yellow nauseous acrid oil obtained from the seeds of the
Castor oil plant and used as a purgative and lubricant.
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Catacoustics is a now obsolete term for the science of reflected sounds - that part of acoustics which considers the properties of echoes.
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In chemistry, a catalase is any of various enzymes capable of decomposing hydrogen peroxide.
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Catallactics is the science of exchanges, a branch of political economics.
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A catalyst is a substance which facilitates a reaction, without being consumed by the reaction itself. It is a term generally used in chemistry, although it is equally applicable in applied Psychology, such as in the role of an antagonist or provocateur.
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A catenary is a curve taken up by a flexible cable suspended between two points, under gravity. For example, the curve of overhead suspension cables that hold the conductor wire of an electric railroad or tramway.
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Caterpillar track is the trade name for an endless flexible belt of metal plates on which certain vehicles such as tanks and bulldozers run, which takes the place of ordinary tyred wheels and improves performance on wet or uneven surfaces. A track-laying vehicle has a track on each side, and its engine drives small cogwheels that run along the top of the track in contact with the ground. The advantage of such tracks over wheels is that they distribute the vehicle's weight over a wider area and are thus ideal for use on soft and waterlogged as well as rough and rocky ground.
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A cathetometer is a device for measuring small vertical differences in height. It consists of a horizontal telescope mounted to slide upon an accurately graduated vertical stand. The observer sights in succession the points under examination and then reads from the scale the distance through which the telescope has moved in making the observations.
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A cathode is a negative electrical pole or terminal.
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Cathode rays are a stream of electrons emitted from the cathode of an electron tube and accelerated to high velocity by an electron gun. The rays can be deflected by magnetic or electric fields.
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A cathode-ray oscilloscope is an instrument for examining electrical quantities, and particularly varying electrical quantities both periodic and transient, by means of a luminous trace on the screen of a cathode-ray tube. The quantities to be investigated or measured are made to deflect the electron beam in the cathode-ray tube, and thus to produce corresponding movement of the light spot on the screen. In addition to examining electrical quantities as such, the oscilloscope is widely used to examine any physical quantity the changing values of which can be converted into corresponding changes of electric potential.
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A cathode-ray tube is an electron tube containing a thermionic cathode and an electron gun for the production of cathode rays which are directed axially along the tube in the direction of the flattened, wide end. The internal surface of the wider end of the tube is coated with a phosphor which emits light at the point of impact of the high speed electrons.
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A cation is a positively charged ion which, in an electrolyte or in a gas-filled electron tube, travels towards the negative electrode or cathode.
Research Cation
Catoptrics (formerly anacamptics) is the branch of optics which explains the properties of incident and reflected light, and particularly that which is reflected from mirrors or polished surfaces.
Research Catoptrics
Caustic is a name given to various substances which burn or corrode the skin or other tissues. As a rule they disintegrate and destroy the structure of all organized substances, for example, cotton-wool, etc.
In optics, cautic is the name given to the curve to which the rays of light, reflected or refracted by another curve, are tangents. Caustics are consequently of two kinds - catacaustics and diacaustics - the former being caustics by reflection and the latter caustics by refraction.
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The Cavendish Experiment was conducted by Henry Cavendish for the purpose of ascertaining the mean density of the earth by means of the torsion balance.
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CC:Mail is a network communications system which functions transparently across different networks, operating systems and hardware platforms. As such it has the ability to connect groups of users across a LAN or collection of LANs. CC:Mail enables a central database to be maintained which is called the CC:Mail post office. This structure contains single copies of messages together with pointers to individual mailboxes. This cuts down on network traffic and also disk storage space. As the package is of a modular nature, CC:Mail may be expanded as requirements grow with ease. Anything that can be created or viewed on a workstation may be transmitted across the LAN to the central post office. When the message is received by the post office the recipient is notified. Items within the message can be multiple so that one message may contain many items. These items can be text, graphics, files and screen output. Items may be edited when they are viewed and returned the sender, forwarded, printed, archived or deleted. If the item is of
special interest it may be saved in a private folder for personal use or made public by placing it on a bulletin board. If an old message is required a search can be made by name, keyword phrase, and date. Management of the system is carried out by the CC:Mail Administrator who creates the mail directory.
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The CCIR (Comite Consultatif Internationale des Radio), is a major constituent of the International Telecommunications Union, issuing both Radio Regulations and Recommendations for all uses of radio transmission.
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The CCITT (Comite Consultatif Internationale des Telephones et Telegraphes), is a major constituent of the International Telecommunications Union (ITU) that sets standards for the operation of telecommunications services across international boundaries. Many CCITT standards are adopted for use domestically.
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A CCU (Communications Concentrator Unit) is a small computer connected between a main computer and one or more serial devices operating as an intermediary to relieve the main computer of much of the routine work connected with receiving information from the serial devices.
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Cedar resin is a white resin exuded by the trunks of cedars, formerly used in embalming.
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A cellular network is a radiotelephone network for mobile subscribers that connects them to the main telephone system. There is a cellular network in Britain operated jointly by British Telecom and Securicor (as Cellnet), it consists of a number of adjacent cells, each containing a transmit/ receive station connected to the main telephone network and reached by the mobile subscriber using a battery-operated portable radiotelephone. As subscribers move from one geographical cell to another (e.g. by car), they are automatically switched to receive signals from the new area.
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Celluloid is a hard, unstable synthetic substance once used for films. It is composed of gun-cotton and camphor and is moulded to the desired shape by heat. Celluloid was formerly extensively used as a substitute for ivory, bone, hard rubber, coral, etc, having a close resemblance to these substances in hardness, elasticity, and texture. It was used for buttons, handles for knives, forks, and umbrellas, billiard-balls, piano keys, napkin-rings, backs to brushes, etc. It can be variously coloured, and was known to be dangerous on account of the readiness with which it takes fire, even while being widely used.
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Cellulose is a generic name for substances of which the cell-membranes of plants are composed. They are carbohydrates allied to starch, and when heated with dilate acid yield sugars. Ordinary cellulose has been found in a few invertebrate animals. Wood-pulp for paper making mostly consists of cellulose, so also does gun-cotton.
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Cementation is the conversion of iron into steel by heating the iron in a mass of ground charcoal, and thus causing it to absorb a certain quantity of the charcoal.
Research Cementation
Central forces are the forces which cause a moving body on which they act to tend towards or recede from the centre of motion, or that point which remains at rest while all the other parts of a body move round it. The force with which the revolving body tends to fly from the centre is called the centrifugal force, and the force which causes it to tend towards the centre of motion is called the centripetal force.
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The centre of gravity is that point of a body through which the line of the resultant of the weights of all the particles composing the body always passes, whatever be the position of the body.
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The centre of gyration is the point at which, if the whole mass of a revolving body were collected, the rotatory effect would remain unaltered.
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The centre of oscillation is that point of a body suspended by an axis, at which, if all the matter were concentrated, the oscillations would be performed in the same time.
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The centre of pressure is that point of a body at which the whole amount of pressure may be applied with the same effect as it would produce if distributed; specifically, in hydrostatics, that point in the side of a vessel containing a liquid, to which, if a force were applied equal to the total pressure and in the opposite direction, it w^ould exactly balance the effort of the total pressure.
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Centrifugal machines are machines in which centrifugal force produced by rapid revolution is utilized. They may be used for drying articles, clothes, for instance, the articles being placed in the inside of a hollow cylinder made of wire-gauze or having many perforations in its walls, the moisture being driven off when the cylinder is made to revolve rapidly. Sugar is often separated from molasses by a centrifugal machine, the impure sugar being placed in a cylinder which is contained within a larger cylinder, the latter receiving the molasses which is removed by the rapid revolution of the inside cylinder. Cream is now commonly separated from milk in large dairies by this method, which can also be employed in the clarification of liquids, such as beer.
Research Centrifugal Machines
Cerenkov radiation is radiation emitted when a charged particle travels through a medium at a speed greater than the velocity of light in the medium. This occurs when the refractive index of the medium is high. Cerenkov radiation is like the bow wave of a boat, or the shock wave of a supersonic airplane. Photons bunch up in front of the tachyon and they're radiated away at an angle determined by the speed of the tachyon.
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Ceresine wax is a petroleum product obtained from Galician earth wax. It is a hard, white wax used as a substitute for beeswax in the decorating trades.
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Cerium is a rare metal element with the symbol Ce.
Research Cerium
CERT is the Computer Emergency Response Team that was formed by the American Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) in November 1988 in response to the needs exhibited during the Internet worm incident. The CERT charter is to work with the Internet community to facilitate its response to computer security events involving Internet hosts, to take proactive steps to raise the community's awareness of computer security issues, and to conduct research targeted at improving the security of existing systems.
CERT products and services include 24-hour technical assistance for responding to computer security incidents, product vulnerability assistance, technical documents, and seminars. In addition, the team maintains a number of mailing lists (including one for CERT advisories) and provides an anonymous FTP server: cert.org (192.88. 209.5), where security-related documents, past CERT advisories, and tools are archived.
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Ceruleum is a blue pigment, consisting of stannate of protoxide of cobalt mixed with stannic acid and sulphate of lime.
Research Ceruleum
Cetearth-3 is used in cosmetics as an emulsifier and lotion. It dries out the skin and causes numerous allergic reactions.
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Cetyl alcohol (fatty alcohol) is a moisturiser used in cosmetics to keep oil and water from separating and also as a foam booster.
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The Colour Graphics Adapter or CGA was one of the first graphics adapters available for Personal Computers and was released by IBM in 1981 at the same time that they released their first Personal Computer. The CGA graphics card supported a single text mode display of 80 columns and 25 rows, and two graphics modes of 320 x 200 pixels in four colours and 600 x 200 pixels in two colours. The CGA was based upon the Motorola MC6485 video controller.
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CGI (The Common Gateway Interface) is a specification that allows computer Web servers execute other programs and incorporate their output into the text, graphics, and audio sent to a client Web browser. The server and the CGI program work together to enhance and customise the World Wide Web's capabilities. By providing a standard interface, the CGI specification allows developers use a wide variety of programming tools, such as C and Perl.
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A chain saw is a motor-driven, usually portable, saw in which the cutting teeth form links in a continuous chain. Chain saws are typically used for felling trees and branches of trees.
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A chain-pump is a pump consisting in principle of an endless chain equipped with a number of valves or buckets moving round
two wheels, one above and one below. The chain in its ascent passes through a tube closely fitting the valves or buckets, the water being discharged either from the top of the tube or from an orifice in it.
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The Challenger Expedition was a voyage for the scientific purposes of investigating the conditions of life in the deep sea of the Atlantic, Pacific and Antarctic Oceans organised in 1872 by the British government. The corvette Challenger started from Sheerness in December 1872 and returned in May 1876 after collecting information about the ocean beds, currents, temperature and also collecting samples of fauna.
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Chalybeate Waters are waters holding iron in solution, either as a carbonate or as a sulphate with or without other salts. All waters containing iron are distinguished by their styptic, inky taste, and by giving a more or less deep colour with an infusion of tea or of nut-galls.
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Channel efficiency is a measure of the ability of a river channel to discharge water. Channel efficiency can be assessed by calculating the channel's hydraulic radius . The most efficient channels are generally semicircular in cross-section, and it is this shape that water engineers try to create when altering a river channel to reduce the risk of flooding .
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Charcoal is a term applied to an impure variety of carbon, especially such as is produced by charring wood. One kind of charcoal is also obtained from bones. Lampblack and coke are also varieties.
Wood charcoal is inannfactured by the partial combustion of wood piled in heaps, with air-spaces between, and covered with turf. Water and various combustible materials are driven off, and impure carbon retaining the original structure of the wood is left. The more modern method is to heat the wood in closed retorts, when, in addition to the charcoal which is left behind, various volatile products of importance are obtained; among these are a combustible gas, wood spirit, pyroligneous acid, and wood tar.
Wood charcoal, well prepared, is of a deep-black colour, brittle and porous, tasteless and inodorous. It is combustible at high temperatures, cannot be fused in any flame or furnace, but is volatilized at the high temperature of the electric arc, presenting a surface with a distinct appearance of having undergone fusion. Charcoal is insoluble in water, and is not affected by it at low temperatures; hence, wooden stakes which are to be immersed in water are often charred to preserve them, and the ends of posts stuck in the ground are also thus treated. Owing to its peculiarly porous texture, charcoal possesses the property of absorbing considerable volumes of air or other gases at common temperatures, and of yielding the greater part of them when heated.
Charcoal likewise absorbs the odoriferous and colouring principles of most animal and vegetable substances, and hence is a valuable deodorizer, disinfectant, and decoloriser. Formerly, water which, from having been long kept in wooden vessels, as during long voyages, had acquired an offensive smell, was deprived of it by nitration through charcoal powder. Charcoal can also prevent the decay of animal and vegetable matter.
Charcoal is used as a smokeless fuel in stoves, etc, as a reducing agent in metallurgical operations, e.g. for obtaining metals from their oxides, and for converting wrought iron into steel by the process of cementation. It is an important component of ordinary gunpowder, and is used in domestic filters. In its finer state of aggregation, under the form of ivory-black, lampblack, etc, charcoal is the basis of black paint; and mixed with fat oils and resinous matter,to give a due consistence, it constitutes printing-ink. Artist's charcoal is formed from sticks of willow wood.
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Charleston Phosphate is a valuable fertilizer obtained at Charleston, South Carolina, and classed as 'land' or 'river' phosphate, the latter being procured by dredging.
Research Charleston Phosphate
In printing, a chase was a frame used for holding the type for printing one whole side of a sheet of paper. The type was first set up letter by letter in a composing stick and then transferred to a device called the galley where it appeared in columns. It was next transferred to the chase where it was held tight by quoins or small wooden wedges.
Research Chase
Chatterton's Compound is a mixture of Stockholm tar, resin and gutta-percha. It was once used in the construction of submarine telegraph cables.
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Cheddite is any of a group of high explosives made from nitro compounds mixed with sodium or potassium chlorate.
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A cheese aerial is a type of rotatable aerial employed in Radar on the centimetric waveband. It consists of a parabolic metallic reflector, and is usually fed by a wave guide.
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A Cheese Box is an electronic apparatus used to convert a domestic telephone into a pay phone. They are used by criminals to throw off traces (a red box is usually needed in order to call out).
Research Cheese Box
A chelate is an inorganic complex in which a ligand is coordinated to a metal ion at two or more points, so that there is a ring of atoms including the metal. The process is known as chelation. The bidentate ligand diaminoethane forms chelates with many ions.
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Chemdet is an anionic drilling detergent for drilling muds. It is added to water based mud systems to reduce the surface tension.
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Chemical bond is the force retaining two atoms together in a molecule as, for example, the force exerted by a pair of shared electrons.
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In chemistry, chemical change is a change in which the chemical structure of a substance is changed.
Research Chemical change
Chemical dating is an absolute dating technique that depends on measuring the chemical composition of a specimen. Chemical dating can be used when the specimen is known to undergo slow chemical change at a known rate. For instance, phosphate in buried bones is slowly replaced by fluoride ions from the ground water. Measurement of the proportion of fluorine present gives a rough estimate of the time that the bones have been in the ground. Another, more accurate, method depends on the fact that amino acids in living organisms are L- optical isomers. After death, these racemize and the age of bones can be estimated by measuring the relative amounts of D- and L- amino acids present.
Research Chemical dating
Chemical decomposition is the separation of the constituents of a body from one another. Roughly speaking - for it is a difference of degree rather than of kind - decomposition is either artificial or spontaneous.
Artificial decomposition is produced in bodies by the action of heat, light, electricity or chemical reagents; spontaneous, in bodies which quickly undergo change in ordinary circumstances, unless special precautions are taken to preserve them. The bodies of the mineral, and the definite crystallized principles of the organic world, belong to the first; organized matter, such as animal and vegetable tissues, organic fluids, such as blood, milk, bile, and the complex non-crystallized bodies, albumen, gelatine, emulsine, etc, belong to the second.
Research Chemical decomposition
Chemistry is the science which treats of the nature, laws of combination, and mutual actions of the minute particles of the different sorts of matter composing our universe, and the properties of the compounds they form. It is a modern science developed from the earlier Alchemy.
The alchemists in their study of minerals and metallic ores made important but isolated discoveries, and at the close of the 17th century the German chemist Becher threw out certain speculations regarding the cause of combustion, which were taken up and extended by Stahl in the 'phlogistic theory', and constitute the first generalization of the phenomena of chemistry, though the theory itself was diametrically opposed to the truth. About the middle of the 18th century Dr. Black made his great discovery of a gas differing from atmospheric air, rapidly followed by that of a number of other gases by Cavendish, Rutherford, Priestley, Scheele, etc; and the discovery of oxygen by the two last-named chemists afforded to Lavoisier the means of revolutionizing and systematizing the science. By a series of experiments he showed that all substances, when burned, absorb oxygen, and that the weight of the products of combustion is exactly equal to that of the combustible consumed and of the oxygen which has disappeared. The application of this theory to the great majority of the most important chemical phenomena was obvious and the Stahlian hypothesis disappeared.
A yet more important step was the discovery by Dalton of the laws of chemical combination. His theory was immediately taken up by Berzelius, to whose influence, and careful determination of the chemical equivalents of almost all the elements then known, its rapid adoption was mainly due. To Berzelius we owe many of the modern improvements in the methods of analysis, while Sir Humphry Davy laid the foundation of electro-chemistry.
From the 19th century every branch of the science was advanced, but the most extraordinary progress was made in organic chemistry, or the chemistry of the carbon compounds, and in physical chemistry, a branch of chemistry which is closely allied to certain branches of physics.
The investigations of chemists showed that the great majority of the different natural substances can be broken up into substances of less complicated nature, which resist all further attempts to decompose them, and appear to consist of only one kind of matter. These substances, by union of which all the different sorts of known matter are built up, are called the chemical elements. The list includes such substances as gold, iron, oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, calcium, etc. When any two or more of these elements are brought in contact, under suitable conditions, they may unite and form chemical compounds of greater or less complexity, in which the constituents are held in union by a form of energy which has received the name of chemical affinity. This affinity is characterized by its acting between dissimilar particles, and producing a new kind of matter, readily distinguishable from either of the substances combining to form it, and which cannot be again separated into its elements by merely mechanical processes. In these respects, and also in the fact that union occurs in definite proportions by weight, the compounds differ from mere mixtures of elements.
Around 1900, about eighty elements had been identified. During the 20th century many more were discovered, and by 2008 118 elements were known, though elements with larger atomic numbers than 92 do not occur naturally, rather they have all been produced artificially by bombarding other elements with particles. Elements are usually grouped by their number of protons, and represented in a table known as the periodic table, in which hydrogen is numbered 1, oxygen is numbered 8 and iron is numbered 26.
Research Chemistry
Chernozem (black earth) is a type of soil that is characteristic of the continental interiors of the mid-latitudes, in which grassland formed the natural vegetation. Chernozems occur across the Russian steppes and parts of Romania and Hungary; these soils also occur in North America. The deep surface layer (A horizon) of a chernozem is black and rich in alkaline humus derived from the decomposition of the natural grassland vegetation. The underlying horizon contains calcium carbonate concretions. Chernozems are important agriculturally and most have been ploughed up for cereal production.
Research Chernozem
Chian turpentine is a turpentine or resin obtained from the island of Chios (Scio), yielded by Pistachio Terebinthus, a native of the Mediterranean islands and shores, used in medicine. Called also Cyprus turpentine.
Research Chian Turpentine
Chiasma is the point at which paired homologous chromosomes remain in contact as they begin to separate during the first prophase of meiosis, forming a cross shape. A number of chiasmata can usually be identified and at these points crossing over occurs. Chlorine dioxide Chlorine dioxide is a yellowish-red explosive gas with the formula ClO2. It is soluble in cold water but decomposed by hot water to give chloric(VII) acid, chlorine, and oxygen. Because of its high reactivity, chlorine dioxide is best prepared by the reaction of sodium chlorate and moist oxalic acid at 90-100 degrees centigrade, as the product is then diluted by liberated carbon dioxide. Commercially the gas is produced by the reaction of sulphuric acid containing chloride ions with sulphur dioxide. Chlorine dioxide is widely used as a bleach in flour milling and in wood pulping and in water purification.
Research Chiasma
Chica is an orange-red pigment prepared from Bignnia Chica by the Indians of the upper Orinoco and Rio Negro in South America and used to adorn the person.
Research Chica
Chicle is a gum-like substance obtained from the bully tree and used for making chewing gum.
Research Chicle
CHILL is a real-time programming language similar to Ada, developed by CCITT for the programming of computer-based telecommunications systems and computer-controlled telephone exchanges.
Research CHILL
Chilled Iron is iron cast in metal moulds called chills, where, on account of the rapid conducting of the heat, the iron cools more quickly on the surface than it would do if cast in sand. Chilled iron is whiter and has a harder surface than iron cast in any other way.
Research Chilled Iron
Chladni's Figures are the figures formed by sand strewn on a horizontal glass or metal plate, or even a slip of wood, when it is clamped firmly at one point, and set in vibration by means of a violin-bow.
Research Chladni's Figures
Chloral a liquid first prepared by Justus Liebig by passing dry chlorine gas through absolute alcohol to saturation, and still prepared in a similar manner. When mixed with water it readily yields chloral hydrate), a white crystalline substance, which, in contact with alkalies, yields chloroform and formic acid. Chloral kills by paralysing the action of the heart, but is often employed in medicine. It is a hypnotic as well as an anaesthetic, and is frequently substituted for morphia. It has been successfully used in delirium tremens, St Vitus's dance, poisoning by strychnia, in tetanus, and in some cases of asthma and whooping-cough. It should be taken with great caution and under medical advice, as an extra dose may produce serious symptoms and even death. The treatment of poisoning by chloral is to keep the person warm by means of blankets, warm bottles; etc. Warm stimulating drinks should also be administered, such as hot coffee, hot tea, negus, etc. It has been shown that an animal kept warm by wrapping in cotton wool recovered from a dose of chloral that otherwise would have killed it.
Research Chloral
Chloral Hydrate is a crystalline compound of the marsh gas series, discovered by Justus Liebig in 1831, which, when taken dissolved in water, produces deep sleep, but not insensibility to pain.
Research Chloral Hydrate
Chloralum is a compound of chlorine and aluminium used as an antiseptic and disinfectant invented by Gamgee in 1870.
Research Chloralum
A chlorate is a salt formed by the reaction of chloric acid and metal. The chlorates are very analogous to the nitrates. They are well crystallized solids which give off oxygen when heated. They deflagrate with inflammable substances with such facility that an explosion is produced by slight causes. They are used in the preparation of oxygen in pyrotechnics and as oxidizing agents in dyeing and other processes.
Research Chlorate
Chlordane is a man-made chemical that was registered for use as a pesticide in the United States from 1948 to the present. It is a tan, glassy substance (almost solid) that has a mild, irritating smell. Chlordane is not a single chemical, but is a mixture of more than 50 chemicals. Because it does not dissolve in water, before it can be used, it must be placed in water with emulsifiers (soap-like substances) to make a milky-looking mixture of liquid particles. It was used mainly to stop termites in houses and was used on corn and other crops.
The presence of chlordane in the soil under a house will kill termites that come into contact with it and will repel or kill any that might try to enter the house at a later time. The production of chlordane by industries and registration of the pesticide with the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) for all above-ground uses had stopped by 1983, but above-ground use of any chlordane that was still on store shelves or already bought was still allowed until April 14, 1988. In the autumn of 1987, use of chlordane to kill termites was allowed only on the outside of buildings, and other uses were suspended in April of 1988 until more information was gathered on the amount of chlordane in air. Use of chlordane was stopped mainly because of concern over cancer risk, evidence of human exposure and build up in body fat, persistence in the environment, and danger to wildlife. This compound stays in the environment for many years and is still found in food, air, water, and soil, and is also present in some form in the fat of almost all humans.
Research Chlordane
Chloric acid is a oxyacid of chlorine. It is a powerful oxidising agent.
Research Chloric acid
Chlorine is a gaseous element with the symbol Cl.Chlorine was discovered by Scheele in 1774, who named it dephlogisticated marine acid. It was afterwards proved by Davy to be a simple body, and from its peculiar yellowish-green colour the appellation of chlorine (from the Greek chloros, yellowish-green) was given to it.
Chlorine occurs in nature in combination chiefly with sodium as common salt, from which it is liberated by the action of sulphuric acid and manganese dioxide. Chlorine is very active, uniting with more or less vigour with most elements to form chlorides. It unites quietly with hydrogen in dull light, and explosively in bright light or when the mixture is ignited.
Chlorine is a very heavy gas, being about two and a half times as heavy as ordinary air; it has a peculiar smell, and irritates the nostrils most violently when inhaled, as also the windpipe and lungs. It exercises a corrosive action upon organic tissues. It is not combustible, though it supports the combustion of many bodies, and, indeed, spontaneously burns several. In combination with other elements it forms chlorides, which act most important parts in many manufacturing processes. This gas may be liquefied by cold and pressure, when it becomes a transparent, greenish-yellow, limpid liquid. Chlorine is one of the most powerful bleaching agents, this property belonging to it through its strong affinity for hydrogen. Hence in the manufacture of bleaching-powder (chloride of lime) it is used in immense quantities. When applied to moistened coloured fabrics it acts by decomposing the moisture present, the oxygen of which then destroys the colouring matter of the cloth, etc. It is a valuable disinfectant where it can be conveniently applied, as in the form of chloride of lime.
Research Chlorine
Chlorobenzene is a colourless highly inflammable liquid with the formula C6H5Cl. It is prepared by the direct chlorination of benzene using a halogen carrier or manufactured by the Raschig process. It is used mainly as an industrial solvent.
Research Chlorobenzene
Chloroethane (ethyl chloride) is a colourless flammable gas with the formula C2H5Cl. It is made by reaction of ethene and hydrogen chloride and used in making lead tetraethyl for petrol.
Research Chloroethane
Choke-damp (after-damp) was the name given to the unbreathable air (carbon dioxide gas) found in coal-mines after an explosion of fire-damp or light carburetted hydrogen.
Research Choke-Damp
In geometry, a chord is a straight line drawn, or supposed to extend, from one end of an arc of a circle to the other.
Research Chord
Chromatic aberration is the presence of prismatic colours at the edges of an optical image due to the refractive index of the lens material being different for light of different frequencies.
Research Chromatic Aberration
Chromatics is the science of colours, and particularly that part of optics which deals with the properties of colours.
Research Chromatics
Chromium is a metal element with the symbol Cr. Chromium forms very hard steel-gray masses; it never occurs native, but is obtained by reducing the oxide with aluminium. Its highest oxide forms a compound of a ruby-red colour. Chromium is so named on account of the various and beautiful colours which its oxide and acid communicate to minerals into whose composition they enter. Chromium provides the colouring matter of the emerald and beryl. Chromium is employed to give a fine deep green to the enamel of porcelain, to glass, etc. Chromium was discovered in 1797 by Vauquelin in the native chromate of lead in Siberia.
Research Chromium
Chromolithography was a method of producing a coloured or tinted lithographic picture, by using various stones having different portions of the picture drawn upon them with inks of various colours and so arranged as to blend into a complete picture. Sometimes as many as twenty different colours were employed. In printing, the lighter shades were printed off first and the darkest last. Chromolithography was employed during the mid-19th century and early 20th century.
Research Chromolithography
A chromosome is a chemical found in all cells which determines how the cell will act.
Research Chromosome
Chronology is the science which treats of time, and has for its object the arrangement and exhibition of historical events in order of time and the ascertaining of the intervals between them. Its basis was necessarily the method of measuring or computing time by regular divisions or periods, according to the revolutions of the earth or moon. The motions of these bodies produce the natural division of time into years, months, and days. As there can be no exact computation of time or placing of events without a fixed point from which to start, dates are fixed from an arbitrary point or epoch, which forms the beginning of an era. The more important of these are the creation of the world among the Jews; the birth of Christ among Christians; the Olympiads among the Greeks; the building of Rome among the Romans; the Hejira or flight of Mohammed among the Muslims, etc.
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The chronoscope is an apparatus invented by Wheatstone in 1840 to measure small intervals of time, and for measuring the duration of extremely short-lived phenomena, such as the electric spark; more especially the name was given to instruments of various forms for measuring the velocity of projectiles.
Research Chronoscope
Chrysophanic acid is a yellow substance obtained from plants, especially Andira araroba and used as an ointment in psoriasis, and other skin diseases.
Research Chrysophanic Acid
A Chubb lock is a lock so named from the name of its inventor, a London locksmith. It has more tumblers than previous locks, with the addition of a lever called the detector, which is so fixed that while it does not act under the ordinary application of the key, yet cannot fail to move if any one of the tumblers be lifted a little too high, as must be the case in any attempt at picking. This movement fixes the bolt immovably, and renders all further attempts at picking useless. Although an improvement on earlier ocks, the chubb lock can still be picked.
Research Chubb Lock
Cinchonine is a vegetable alkaloid contained in all the varieties of Peruvian bark, but principally in Cinchona lancifolia, or pale-bark. Though less bitter than quinine, it may be substituted for it in larger quantities.
Research Cinchonine
Cinnamic Acid or phenylacrylic acid is a white, crystalline organic compound found naturally in combination in some balsams and prepared synthetically by heating benzaldehyde with sodium acetate in the presence of acetic anhydride.
Research Cinnamic Acid
A circuit is a path for electrical current. Current can flow only when the
circuit is closed, that is when it presents a continuous conductive path.
Research Circuit
In computing, a circular list is a linked list in which the last item contains a link to the first item, thereby allowing access to all of the list from any given starting element.
Research Circular List
A circular saw is a power-driven saw comprising a circular disc-shaped blade with a toothed edge which rotates at high speed.
Research Circular Saw
A cistern barometer was a common 19th century form of barometer consisting essentially of a straight glass tube about thirty-three inches long, filled with mercury, and dipping into a cistern of the same metal. The tube was affixed to a mahogany stand, on the upper part of which was a graduated scale to mark the height in inches at which the mercury stands.
Research Cistern Barometer
Citric acid is the acid of lemons, limes, and other fruits. It is generally prepared from lemon-juice, and when pure is white, inodorous, and extremely sharp in its taste. In combination with metals it forms crystalline salts known as citrates. The acid is used as a discharge in calico-printing and as a substitute for lemon in making beverages.
Research Citric acid
A clack valve or flap valve is a type of valve employed for pumps. It consists of a metal disk, or a weighted disk of leather or rubber, hinged at one side, making contact with a flat metal seat.
Research Clack Valve
Clarification or the separation of the insoluble particles that prevent a liquid from being transparent, may be performed by depuration, in which the liquid is allowed to stand until the particles are precipitated, and then decanted; by filtration, or straining through wool, sand, charcoal, etc; or by coagulation, in which the albumen contained in or added to the liquid is solidified and precipitated by the action either of heat or of acids, the extraneous substances being precipitated with it.
Research Clarification
Claris CAD is a drawing and drafting program that provides most of the features required by professional artists, drafts people, and engineers creating two-dimensional drawings. It is one of the most comprehensive design programs available on the Macintosh. There are many tools available for geometric construction including double line drawing, spline and freehand curves, the ability to join lines into polygons, and the ability to part the lines in an object. Rotating objects around a point and mirroring objects around a line is easy.
Claris CAD includes many tools that aid in precise placement of objects and text. You can create an unlimited number of layers that can be viewed in any combination. Each layer can use multiple scales of measurement. Dimensioning can be automatic and is easily edited. You have a choice of linear, radial, diametric, and angular dimensioning, and all can be preset or custom-made.
Claris CAD offers a wide variety of features, including 25 drawing tools and tool modifiers; up to four different ways of drawing objects; the ability to have precise specifications for the size, location, and angles of objects in a drawing; automatic updating of drawings to meet new specifications; support of the five drawing standards used in professional drawing environments; precise zoom controls; and the ability to manage several windows on the screen at one time. Fonts can range in size from one point to 127 points. Style sizes and justifications can be combined. Text can be coloured and rotated. Claris CAD allows you to create libraries of objects that can be recalled by sight or name. Claris CAD includes MacPlot drivers to support Hewlett-Packard and Houston Instrument plotters.
Research Claris CAD
A claw hammer, also known as a carpenter's hammer, is a hammer with a cleft at one end of the head which may be used for extracting nails.
Research Claw Hammer
A clepsydra was an ancient 'water clock' (actually timepiece) which measured time by the rate of the flow of water through small holes at the bottom of an earthenware globe.
Research Clepsydra
Cli-Mate is a shareware computer program for the IBM PC providing an easy, convenient way to receive up-to-date weather information on your desktop. Cli-Mate allows you to retrieve weather forecasts from hundreds of cities and towns in all fifty US states and from major cities in countries around the world. You also can generate assorted full-colour weather maps. Cli-Mate can be configured to update weather information at set intervals, and resides in the system tray. The system tray icon changes to reflect the current weather.
Research Cli-Mate
A cliché is an electrotype or a stereotype cast from an engraving, especially from a woodcut.
Research Cliche
Climate is the average state of the atmosphere with regard to warmth, wind, rain and other variable conditions throughout a long period of time. It is dependant on the interaction of atmospheric conditions, such as wind, cloud, temperature and rainfall and on the surface features of the earth itself, such as the distribution of land and water, mountains and ocean currents. Hence it may vary considerably in places only a few kilometres apart.
Research Climate
Climatology is the study of climate, its global variations and causes. Climatologists record mean daily, monthly, and annual temperatures and monthly and annual rainfall totals, as well as maximum and minimum values. Other data collected relate to pressure, humidity, sunshine, cold cover, and the frequency of days of frost, snow, hail, thunderstorms, and gales. The main facts are summarised in tables and climatological atlases published by nearly all the national meteorological services of the world.
Research Climatology
A clinometer is an instrument used for taking the dip and strike of rock strata.
Research Clinometer
Clipper is a database development tool based on the dBase III Plus file structure. All code developed with
Clipper can be linked and compiled into machine-executed code that can be run directly from the DOS prompt.
Clipper allows many enhancements to the database parameters of dBase III Plus and dBase IV and offers the ability to create user-defined functions, link object files compiled with other languages (such as C and assembler) and data arrays, and call external programs. No runtime module is required. Clipper contains a library, an error handler, a debugger, and a compiler. The library stores frequently used routines. The error handler system lets a programmer control the response of an application when and where errors occur. The debugger assists in finding and correcting both logical and execution errors.
The compiler translates the source code into an executable format. Once the source code is debugged and compiled, the program (stored in an executable file) will run faster than non-compiled dBase III Plus programs. This executable file can be transported to any machine. You do not need Clipper or a runtime version to run the compiled program. Clipper makes it easy to create multi-user applications that support record and file locking and can open files for shared or exclusive access. It supports single and multi-user commands with no need to purchase additional runtime licences or multi-user versions.
Research Clipper
A cloud is a mist formed above the ground by floating water particles. The modern classification of clouds is the result of a paper published in 1803 by Luke Howard. There are numerous types of cloud, divided into ten main genera, which are further subdivided into fourteen species based upon shape and structure, and nine general varieties classified by transparency and geometric arrangement. Within the types of clouds, there are three groups: high clouds (Cirrus, Cirrocumulus and Cirrostratus genera) - occurring at an altitude of between 5000 and 14000 metres, middle clouds (Altocumulus, Altostratus and Nimbostratus genera) - occurring at an altitude of between 2000 and 7000 metres and low clouds (Stratocumulus, Stratus, Cumulus and Cumulonimbus genera) - occurring altitudes below 2000 metres, classified by the altitude at which they occur. For example, Cirrus is a genus of high clouds comprised of fine white filaments. Cumulonimbus is a genus of dense, heavy low cloud.
Research Cloud
A club hammer is a type of mallet with a large metal head, typically weighing a little over one kilogram, used for driving chisels.
Research Club Hammer
A clutch is an apparatus by which two rotating shafts may be connected or disconnected for the purpose of causing one to drive the other.
Research Clutch
The CMI8330 is a 'Sound Blaster compatible' computer sound chip, first introduced as a prototype in Computex in July 1997. The CMI8330 3D positional sound chip was afterwards enhanced and advanced by the joint effort made by C-Media's design teams in both Taiwan and Canada. The
CMI8330 is used on various PC motherboards and sound cards including the Audio Excel PnP 310 board.
Research CMI8330
Co-axial cable is cable consisting of two conductors, one a central wire and the other a cylinder concentric with the wire, the space between them being filled with a dielectric.
Research Co-axial Cable
In geometry, co-ordinates is a term applied to two or more magnitudes which determine the position of a point with reference to fixed lines, points, etc. Co-ordinates either determine the position of a point in space or in a plane which is understood to contain all the figure under consideration. The most important system is that of Cartesian co-ordinates, in which the position of a point is determined by its distances from two fixed intersecting straight lines, called axes of co-ordinates. When the axes are at right angles to eath other (the commonest case) the system is called rectangular; otherwise it is it is oblique. The point of intersection of the axes is the origin. In the system of polar co-ordinates the determining magnitudes are a length and an angle.
Research Co-ordinates
Coagulation is the changing of a fluid into a, more or less solid substance, or the separation of a substance from a solution, through the substance becoming more or less solid. Thus albumen of egg can be dissolved in cold water, but if the solution be warmed, the albumen undergoes a change, separates out in white flooky masses, and cannot again be redissolved in the water. Coagulation is well exemplified by the 'curdling' of milk and 'clotting' of blood.
Research Coagulation
Coal-tar or gas-tar is a thick black viscous liquid produced by the destructive distillation of coal for the manufacture of illuminating gas, consisting principally of oily hydrocarbons. It passes over with the gas into the condensers along with ammonia liquor, but being heavier than the latter, it is easily separated from it when the whole is allowed to stand. It was formerly of comparatively little use; but ince the 19th century a great number of valuable products have been derived from it by distillation, such as ammonia, naphtha, creasote, carbolic acid, and benzene, while it is also the source of the whole series of aniline colours, and other dyes, of alizarine, salicylic acid, etc.
Research Coal-tar
Cobalt (so named from the Greek for goblin, a demon of the mines) is a greyish-white coloured metal element with the symbol Co. It was discovered among the ore veins in Cornwall in early times and called mundic by the miners. It was identified as a metal in 1733 by Brandt. Cobalt is very brittle, of a fine close grain, compact, but easily reducible to powder. It crystallizes in parallel bundles of needles. It is never found in a pure state, but usually as an oxide, or combined with arsenic or its acid, with sulphur, iron, etc.
Its ores are arranged under the following species: arsenical cobalt, of a white colour, passing to steel grey; its texture is granular, and when heated it exhales the odour of garlic; gray cobalt, a compound of cobalt, arsenic, iron, and sulphur, of a white colour, with a tinge of red; its structure is foliated, and its crystals have a cube for their primitive form; sulphide of cobalt, compact and massive in its structure; oxide of cobalt, brown or brownish black, generally friable and earthy; sulphate and arsenate of cobalt, both of a red colour, the former soluble in water. The great use of cobalt is to give a permanent blue colour to glass and enamels upon metals, porcelain, and earthenwares.
Research Cobalt
The Cobalt RAQ was a series of low-cost servers based on the Linux operating system, first produced in 1996 by the Cobalt Microserver company. The servers proved very popular with Internet service Providers and smaller businesses and in 2000 Sun Microsystems purchased the company.
The Cobalt RaQ is a series of 1U rack mount server products that were developed by Cobalt Networks, Inc based upon a modified Red Hat Linux Operating System with a proprietary GUI for server management. Original RaQ systems were equipped with MIPS CPUs but later models used AMD K6-2 chips and then eventually Intel Pentium III CPUs for the final models.
Th original RAQ1 was fitted with a 150 Mhz MIPS RM5230 CPU, the RAQ 2 with a 250 Mhz MIPS RM5231 CPU, the RAQ 3 with a 300 Mhz AMD K6 3DCPU, the RAQ4 with a 450 Mhz AMD K6-2 CPU, the RAQ XTR with an Intel Pentium III CPU originally running at 733 or 933 Mhz and later 850 Mhz or 1 Ghz, and the final RAQ550 model was fitted with a 1 Ghz or 1.26 Ghz Intel Pentium III processor.In 2006 Sun decided to end production and support for the RAQ series of servers.
Research Cobalt RAQ
COBOL (Common Business-Oriented Language) is a computer programming language described by hackers as 'a weak, verbose, and flabby language used by card wallopers to do boring mindless things on dinosaur mainframes'.
Research COBOL
Coca is the dried leaves of the South American shrub, Erythroxylon Coca, from which cocaine is extracted.
Research Coca
Cocamidopropyl betaine (CAPB) is a surfactant used in shampoos, detergents, and cleansing lotions. CAPB is an aklkylamidobetaine and functions as an amphoteric surfactant with anionic and cationic properties depending on pH. Betaines are less foaming than other surfactants and are expensive; however, they are relatively gentle to the skin, have a low potential to irritate the eyes, have good conditioning characteristics, and have antibacterial activity.
Research Cocamidopropyl betaine
In computing, a codec (coder-decoder) is a device that converts a continuous analog signal into an encoded representation in a digital bit stream, and decodes incoming digital signals back into an analog form.
Research Codec
In science a coefficient is a pure numeric characteristic of some property of a material. It appears in the form of a constant multiplying a term or terms in an equation expressing the behaviour of the material in question. Thus in the expression 3ax we should understand as the coefficient of x, 3a, and as the coefficient of ax, 3.
Research Coefficient
A cofferdam is a particular form of temporary dam used to exclude water from the site of docks, quay-walls, or the abutments of bridges during construction.
Research Cofferdam
Coffey's still is an apparatus largely used for rectifying spirit. The weak alcoholic solution, or wort, is boiled by blowing steam through it on its way down column of perforated plates, the ascending vapour becoming richer in alcohol by the evaporation of the more volatile alcohol, and the partial condensation of the less volatile water in its passage through the wort. The alcohol is further concentrated by washing the vapour in a similar way with the dilute alcohol first obtained, the weaker residue being added to the wort.
Research Coffey's Still
Cognitive Development was an English bulletin board system (BBS) operated during the early 1990s specialising in artificial intelligence and computer virus information. The BBS was deemed controversial for its open distribution of computer viruses and was condemned by the British computer press (notably Personal Computer World) but its activities were found not to be aimed at computer crime, but at assisting PC users in combating virus attacks.
Research Cognitive Development
Cohesion is the force by which the various particles of the same material are kept in contact, forming one continuous mass. Its action is seen in a solid mass of matter, the parts of which cohere with a certain force which resists any mechanical action that would tend to separate them. In different bodies it is exerted with different degrees of strength, and it is measured by the force necessary to pull them asunder. Cohesion acts at insensible distances, or between particles in contact, and is thus distinguished from the attraction of gravitation. It unites particles into a single mass, and that without producing any change of properties, and is thus distinguished from adhesion, which takes place between different masses or substances; and from chemical attraction or affinity, which unites particles of a different kind together and produces a new substance. Hardness, softness, tenacity, elasticity, malleability, and ductility are to be considered as modifications of cohesion. The great antagonist of cohesion is heat.
Research Cohesion
Coir is the fibre of the husk of the cocoanut, used in the manufacture of cordage and matting. Coir is obtained by soaking the cocoanut in water for several months, when it is beaten with a stick and rubbed until the intermediate substance is completely separated from the fibres.
Research Coir
Coke is the residue, mainly amorphous carbon, left on heating bituminous coal and thus driving off its volatile constituents, or on heating hydrocarbons to a point at which they decompose with deposition of carbon (cracking).
The simplest method of producing coke is based on the preparation of wood charcoal, the coal being arranged in heaps which are smothered with clay or coal-dust, and then set on fire, sufficient air being admitted to keep the mass at the proper temperature for decomposition without wasting the coke. After the volatile portions are got rid of, the heap is allowed to cool, or is extinguished with water, and the coke is then ready. Methods of heating the coal in close or open ovens until the gaseous and fluid products are driven off are also commonly used. Gas-coke is that which remains in the retorts after the gas has been given off.
Good oven-coke has an iron-grey colour, sub-metallic lustre, is hard, and somewhat vesicular; but gas-coke has rather a slagged and cindery look, and is more porous. Coke contains about 90 percent of carbon, and is used where a strong heat is wanted without smoke and flame, and it is accordingly largely consumed in drying malt and similar purposes. It used to be burned regularly in locomotive-engines, but after about 1900 raw coal was commonly substituted. The largest quantities of coke used to be consumed in smelting operations.
Research Coke
Colchicine is an alkaloid derived from meadow saffron.
Research Colchicine
Collimators are two small subsidiary telescopes used for collimating astronomical instruments, that is, for adjusting the line of collimation, and for determining the collimation error.
Research Collimators
Collodion is a solution of nitro-cellulose in a mixture of alcohol and ether. Collodion is a thick and very inflammable liquid used in the manufacture of artificial silk, artificial leather, artificial pearls and photography. Iodised collodion, used in photography, was invented by Scott Archer in 1851.
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In chemistry, colloids are particles which are intermediate in size between crystalloids that form true solutions and suspensions that eventually settle.
Research Colloids
a colorimeter is an instrument for estimating the strength or quality of a substance by comparing its colour with that of a standard.
Research Colorimeter
Colorimetry is the measurement of the depth of colour of liquids for the purpose of inferring their chemical compositions.
Research Colorimetry
Colour is the perception of a particular frequency or combination of frequencies of light energy. There are three primary colours, red, green and blue, which are perceptions of light energy with differing wavelengths. Ordinary white light is comprised of the whole spectrum of light travelling at different frequencies, and may be split by passing the light through a prism, such as rain drops which produce the familiar rainbow effect - the prism bends the different wavelengths different amounts causing the light to be spread out. When split by a spectrum seven distinct (or not so distinct, in reality they are often merging) wavelengths of light are visible: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet.
Colours in objects are actually perceptions of light energy being absorbed or reflected by the pigments in the object. Hence an object which appears white is actually reflecting the full spectrum of light energy, an object that appears black is absorbing the entire spectrum of light. Pigments, such as paint, appear to be different colours because they absorb and reflect different wavelengths of light. They are not actually coloured themselves, but rather exhibit an effect upon light; in the absence of light - in total darkness - all pigments appear the same, they are all imperceptible.
Basic colours extend through an infinite range of hues and shades, and it can be useful to join the colour with an object to help indicate a particular hue. For example 'pea green' indicates the basic colour green, but of the hue and shade associated with garden peas. Jet is a powerful black colour, and hence 'jet black' indicates an impenetrable black colour. Coffee is understood to be a brown colour, coffee with cream is a pale brown, and is sometimes applied in a complimentary or admiring context to a person's complexion or skin tone as 'coffee coloured' or 'the colour of 'white coffee'.
The spectrum of colours extends seamlessly from red through orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet. Black and white being special cases (black is an absence of colour, white an intense mix of the three primary colours in equal parts). The paler a colour is, the closer to white it appears. The darker it is the closer to black.
Pale colours are described as 'light' or pastel, for example light blue, pale blue and pastel blue all have the same meaning.
Bright colours are described as vidid or brilliant, for example bright red, vivid red and brilliant red all have the same meaning. The opposite of bright is dull. Drab is another word for dull implying a less interesting colour.
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Columbium is an alternative name for the element Niobium, so named from being discovered in the mineral columbite.
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In atronomy, a colure is one of two great circles which divide the ecliptic into four equal parts. One passes through the solstitial and the other through the equinoctial points of the ecliptic.
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A comb is a toothed instrument for arranging and smoothing hair. Combs have been used at least since the times of the ancient Egyptians, Greeks and Romans.
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In chemistry, the combining weight is the weight of an element which will combine with 8 grams of oxygen, or 1. 008 grams of hydrogen.
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Combustion is the operation of fire on inflammable substances; or the union of an inflammable substance with oxygen or some other supporter of combustion, attended with heat and in most instances with light. In consequence of the combination of the carbon in fuel with the oxygen of the air being the universal method of getting heat and light, and as when the action takes place the fuel is said to burn or undergo combustion, the latter term has been extended to those cases in which other bodies than carbon - for example, phosphorus, sulphur, metals, etc - burn in the air or in other substances than air - for example, chlorine. Though the action between the gas and the more solid material, as coal, wood, charcoal, of whose combination combustion is the result, is mutual, the one having as much to do with the process as the other, yet the former, as oxygen, chlorine, iodine, and the compounds which they form with each other and with nitrogen, have received the name of supporters of combustion, while to the latter the term combustibles has been assigned.
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Commensurable is an appellation given to such quantities or magnitudes as can be measured by one and the same common measure. Commensurable numbers are such as can be measured or divided by some other number without any remainder; such are 12 and 18, as being measured by 6 or 3.
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A commutator is a piece of apparatus used in connection with many electrical instruments for reversing the current from the battery, without the necessity of changing the arrangement of the conductors from the poles.
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A compactor is a device which crushes and compresses rubbish into small and convenient parcels.
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In audio engineering a compander is a compressor/expander - a combination of signal compression and expansion. The compander attenuates the input signal above the threshold as well as the level below the width. For very dynamic material, this device allows you to retain the dynamic range without having to be concerned with excessive output signal levels and clipping.
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The Compaq Deskpro 386 was one of the first 32-bit personal computers marketed, being introduced in 1986 with a retail price starting at 5800 pounds (four times the price of a standard IBM compatible personal computer which would typically cost just under 1500 pounds). The Compaq Deskpro 386 was based on the then new Intel 80386 processor running at 16 Mhz, the motherboard having a slot for an 80287 maths co-processor and was fitted with 1 mb of RAM expandable to 14 mb and ran the MS-DOS operating system. The Compaq Deskpro 386 had a 16-colour display with a resolution of 640 x 350 pixels or 80 x 25 character cells and a 130 mb hard disk and a 1.2 mb floppy disk drive (various models were produced). At the time it was said that the Compaq Deskpro 386 made the desktop computer into a mini computer.
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The Presario 5700N Series is a range of personal computers based on the Intel Celeron Processors and include an integrated 2X AGP graphics with 3D hardware acceleration and Aureal A3D 360-degree positional audio.
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The Compaq Presario 5700T Series is a range of personal computers based on the Intel Pentium III processors.
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The Compaq Presario 5800 Series is a range of personal computers aimed at the budget domestic market.
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The Compaq Presario 5900T Series is a range of personal computers based on the Intel Pentium III processor along with a 133Mhz front side bus and PC133 SDRAM memory.
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The Compaq Presario 5900Z Series is a range of personal computers intended for home internet use, and featuring the AMD Athlon Processor, configurable up to 1GHz.
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The Compaq Presario 7300 Series is a range of personal computers aimed at the budget domestic market.
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The Compaq Presario 7400 Series is a range of personal computers.
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The Compaq Presario 7500 Series is a range of personal computers.
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The Compaq Presario 7900 Series is a range of personal computers based around video and graphics peripherals.
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The Compaq Presario 7800 Series is a range of personal computers aimed at the domestic Internet PC market.
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A compass is an instrument used to indicate the magnetic meridian or the position of objects with respect to that meridian, and employed especially on ships, and by surveyors and travellers.
The origin of the compass is unknown, but it is supposed to have been brought from China to Europe about the middle of the 13th century. As now generally used it consists of three parts: namely, the box, the card or fly, and the needle - the
latter being the really essential part, and consisting of a small magnet so suspended that it may be able to move freely in a horizontal direction. The box, which contains the card and needle, is, in the case of the common mariner's compass, a circular brass receptacle hung within a wooden one by two concentric rings called gimbals,, so fixed by the cross centres to the box that the inner one, or compass-box, shall retain a horizontal position in all motions of the ship. The circular card is divided into thirty-two equal parts by lines drawn from the centre to the circumference, called points or rhumbs; the intervals between the points are also divided into halves and quarters, and the whole circumference into equal parts or degrees, 360 of which complete the circle; and, consequently, the distance or angle comprehended between any two rhumbs is equal to 11.25 degrees.
The four principal rhumbs are called cardinal points: North, South, East, and West. The names of the rest are compounded of these.
The needle is a small bar of magnetized steel. It is fixed on the under side of the card, and in the centre is placed a conical socket, which is poised on an upright pointed pin fixed in the bottom of the box; so that the card, hanging on the pin, turns freely round its centre, and one of the points, by the property of the needle, will always be directed towards the north pole. The needle, however, is liable to a certain deviation owing to the magnetism of the ship itself, and this is especially strong in iron ships. To obviate this Sir W Thomson (Lord Kelvin) invented a compass, having a number of needles arranged in a particular manner instead of one. In this compass quadrantal errors are corrected by means of two iron globes fixed on opposite sides of the binnacle; while the various components of the ship's magnetic force are neutralized by a series of bar-magnets so arranged as to act as correctors. In the compass used by land-surveyors and others the needle is not fixed to the card, but plays alone, the card being-drawn on the bottom of the box.
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A compass saw is a hand saw with a narrow tapered blade, used for cutting curves.
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Compasses, also known as a pair of compasses, are a mathematical instrument used for the describing of circles, measuring lines, etc. They consist simply of two pointed legs, movable on a joint or pivot, and are used for measuring and transferring distances. For describing circles the lower end of one of the legs is removed and its place supplied by a holder for a pencil or pen.
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A compensation balance is a balance-wheel or a pendulum so constructed as to counteract the tendency of variations of temperature to produce variations in the rate of vibration or oscillation. This may be accomplished in various ways, as by bars formed of two or more metals of different expansibilities, so that the expansion of one counteracts the expansion of another. They are used to produce perfect equality of motion in the balances of mechanical watches and chronometers and the pendulums of mechanical clocks.
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A compiler is a computer program that translates high level language code into machine language code. It was invented by Grace Murray Hopper in 1951.
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Compiler Table Exceeded is an esoteric error message that occurs in some computer language compilers, such as the Borland C compilers, when a source file contains too many function calls for the compiler to deal with. The solution is to break the source file into multiple source files, compile each into separate object modules and then link these together. With the Borland C compilers this is easily accomplished by creating a 'project file' listing each source file to be compiled and linked, rather than trying to build from a single source file.
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Complex quantum mechanics is a highly advanced, esoteric area of theoretical physics, forming an extension of the discipline of quantum mechanics, and was devised by Carl Bender around 2002 while working in London. Carl Bender believes complex quantum mechanics to be a mathematical breakthrough and a major advance in the basic theory of quantum mechanics. According to Carl Bender, complex quantum mechanics provides a framework for describing the nature of antiparticles. It offers the possibility that a particle and its corresponding antiparticle need not have identical masses, and thus it may provide insight into the puzzle of why there is so much more matter than antimatter in the universe. Moreover, complex quantum mechanics gives a setting for exploring the physics of the Higgs particle, which is the as yet unobserved and most poorly understood component of modern particle physics.
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In mechanics, the composition of forces and motions is the union or assemblage of several forces or motions that are oblique to one another, into an equivalent force or motion in another direction. Thus two forces acting in the directions of the adjacent sides of a parallelogram, compose one force acting in the direction of the diagonal, and if the lengths of the adjacent sides represent also the magnitudes of the forces, the diagonal will represent the magnitude of the compound force or resultant.
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Compost is a mixture of manures, or earths and manures, varying in proportions and quality to suit different plants and used by gardeners to feed their plants and improve soil quality.
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A compound is a substance made of two or more elements and differing from a mixture in that the elements are present in a constant proportion no matter how or where the
compound is prepared.
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Compressibility is the property of bodies in virtue of which they may be pressed into smaller bulk. All bodies are probably compressible, though the liquids are but slightly so. The gases are exceedingly compressible, and may be liquefied by pressure and cold combined. Those bodies which occupy their former space when the pressure is removed, are called elastic.
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In audio engineering a compressor provides a form of automatic level control. It attenuates high levels, thus effectively reducing the dynamic range, making it much easier to control signals and set appropriate fader levels. Reducing the dynamic range also means that recording levels can be set higher, therefore improving the signal-to-noise performance. Limiting is an extreme form of compression, where the output signal is sharply attenuated so that it cannot exceed a particular level.
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The Compton Effect is the experimental proof by A. H. Compton in 1923 that X-rays, scattered by falling on a solid such as carbon are altered in frequency. The experiment affords proof that light is at once wave-like and particle-like in nature.
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A computer is a programmable, usually electronic, device. The modern computer is generally accepted to have been invented during the 19th century by the mathematician Charles Babbage.
Computers are of two distinct types: analog and digital. Analog computers operate by manipulating electrical potentials, voltage in simple terms. Digital computers operate on fixed values, usually the binary code of one and zero. Modern computers are generally digital, and certainly all personal computers are digital.
Early digital computers used electrical relays as their two-state (binary) devices - two-state, they were either 'on' or 'off'. These early digital computers were first made during the 1940's, were large and were used for military purposes and in a few research laboratories. They were unreliable due to the unreliability of the physical contacts of the relays, and were very low speed - compared to modern computers. During the 1950's valves or vacuum tubes replaced relays in digital computers, and by the 1960's they in turn were replaced by transistors - enabling a computer with the power of one which filled a room in the 1950's to be built which would fit in a shoe box. Transistors were in turn replaced by the integrated circuit or 'silicon chip', allowing computers to be made even smaller and smaller.
In 1980 Sir Clive Sinclair revolutionised computing with the invention of the ZX80 domestic micro computer, and a year later marketed the ZX81, the first computer to be built with just four silicon chips. Shortly afterwards the personal computer or PC emerged aimed at the business market.
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Computer Screen Interception (CSI) is a popular method of reading confidential information from remote computers. The basic principle of Computer Screen Interception is that CRT video display units radiate radio waves, these can then be received and displayed on a modified television receiver relatively quite simply, revealing a copy of everything being displayed on the originating computer screen.
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Conchology is the scientific study of shells. It was first reduced to a system by John Major of Kiel in 1675.
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Conclave Policy Server 3 is a single computer product containing an integrated set of solutions dealing with all aspects of network access control via its policy-based system. These include authentication, auditing, and reporting, alerting and personalisation services to web servers, applications and databases. Due to the way systems have evolved over the years, or, perhaps different security products being brought in at different stages to address single security issues, access control has ended up being dealt with on a user-by-user, application-by-application and/or server-by-server basis. While this may indeed work very well for some installations where familiarity, resources and expertise are available, such a fragmented access control infrastructure can be a nightmare, and could even become a security problem in itself for network installations where this is not the case. An obvious workaround for the above mentioned potentially chaotic scenario is uniformity, i.e. a uniform methodology or system that can be used by all applications, databases, servers and users in an organisation. This is where a product like Conclave can step in, preferably in a green field network installation, or an established one that has previously had no access control operation in place.
At the heart of Conclave is its role-based policy management architecture in the form of its Policy Servers providing scalable access control for applications, databases, VPN/networks, web servers and devices. A fully distributed database stores access control information from all over the network facilitating central management, distributed processing and database redundancy, while management of all activity via the Administrator Console further reduces the potential complexities associated with system management. Integrated web server 'plug-in' solutions for Microsoft's IIS and Netscape's Enterprise Server and an SQL interface that allows applications to be integrated enable centralised authentication, profile and access control management, while access restrictions on, for example, databases and spreadsheets can be controlled down to table, row and field level.
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Concorde is an all-in-one graphics program for business and presentation applications. It combines text, business graphics, free-form drawing and also painting and has a slideshow capability with animation, into one integrated program. There is also a large clip-art library of images spanning almost 20 diskettes. Concorde has an image database of over 2000 symbols, maps, icons and pictures which can be incorporated into charts or you can create your own drawings. All images can be flipped, rotated or cut and pasted. The product includes a library of animations for show-time presentations. Slide shows can be created as self running or manually controlled. A library of catchy tunes is included to accompany any portion of the presentation. Concorde creates numerous graphs, including three dimensional, clustered, stacked, single and multiple line bar charts, pie and exploded pie charts, x-y, scatter, stretched and stacked icon and also multiple area graphs. You can automatically label and size any chart and can select colours and textures.
Text can be moved, copied, merged with images and graphs or saved as a text slide. Any graph can be edited horizontally and vertically or rescaled. There are fifteen medium and high resolution font styles, which can be scaled to any size. All text is proportionally spaced. Concorde reads DIF, Lotus 1-2-3, Symphony and SYLK files. You can capture any graphics or text screen with
Concorde's Capture program. While Concorde offers a multitude of presentation capabilities, its strength is in putting together PC-based slide shows. Copied to self-running disks, these shows produce effective marketing or training tools. Concorde is useful for creating tutorials or program demonstrations.
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Concrete is a building material of cement, sand, stone and water.
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In physics, a conductor is a substance in which energy is able to move, this phenomena being known as conduction. The energy may be electrical or kinetic (heat).
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Condy's fluid is a solution of sodium permanganate used as a chemical stain for wood by French Polishers.
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In geometry, the term cone generally means a right circular cone, that is, the solid figure traced out when a right-angled triangle is made to revolve round one of the sides that contain the right angle. Or, in more general terms: Let a straight line be held fixed at one point, and let any other point of the line be made to describe any closed curve which does not cut itself; the solid figure traced out is a cone. When the curve which the second point describes is a circle, the cone is a right circular one. The cubical content of a right circular cone is one-third of that of a cylinder on the same base and of the same altitude, and is therefore found by multiplying the area of the base by the altitude, and taking one-third of the product.
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In audio engineering, confidence monitoring is the listening directly from a recording medium to ensure the program material is being recorded correctly, Most analog recorders have a playback head trailing the record head, allowing you to hear the material directly after it has been recorded. Professional DAT recorders usually have four heads for confidence monitoring, as do a number of the modular digital multitrack recorders. Hard disk recorders offer their own form of confidence monitoring.
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Congo Red is a dye belonging to the azo-dyes. It is manufactured from benzedrine and napthionic acid, and can be used directly on cotton without employing a mordant.
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Conia also known as Coniine or cicutine is a volatile alkaloid, the active poisonous principle of hemlock. It exists in all parts of the plant, but especially in the not quite ripe seed. When pure it is a colourless oily liquid changing by exposure to the air to a brown fluid, and ultimately to a resinous bitter mass. It has been prepared synthetically since at least 1905 and is a derivative of pyridine. It has a nauseous taste and very disagreeable odour, sharp and choking when strong, but in small quantities like that of mice. It is exceedingly poisonous, causing death by paralysis of the muscles used in respiration.
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Conic sections are three curves, the hyperbola, the parabola, and the ellipse, so called because they are formed by the intersection of the surface of a cone with planes that cut the cone in various directions. If the cutting-plane be parallel to the axis the curve formed is the hyperbola; if parallel to the slope of the cone the curve is a parabola; if passing through both sides of the cone obliquely the section is an ellipse. A section perpendicular to the axis of the cone forms a circle, which may also be considered one of the conic sections. A perpendicular plane through the apex gives a triangle.
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The metal conical valve, also known as the mushroom valve, or poppet valve is a type of valve ground to make an exact fit with its seat. The contact face is very narrow. As used for pumps and safety-valves, the valve has three or four radiating wings which keep it centred ; but in gas engines it is guided by the stem which moves it. It is probably the best valve for withstanding high pressures without appreciable wear.
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In astronomy, a conjunction, is the position of two of the heavenly bodies, as two planets, or the sun and a planet, when they have the same longitude (are in the same direction from the earth). When it is simply said that a planet is in conjunction, conjunction with the sun is to be understood. Superior conjunction and inferior conjunction are terms used of the planets whose orbits are nearer to the sun than that of the earth, according as the sun is between us and them, or they between us and the sun.
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In geometry, a conoid is a solid formed by the revolution of a conic section about its axis. Thus the solid resulting from a parabola is a parabolic conoid or paraboloid; if a hyperbola, a hyperbolic conoid or hyperboloid; etc. Ellipsoids and spheroids might be included under the definition, but are usually excluded.
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CONSIGHT is an industrial machine vision object-recognition system which uses lighting effects to produce silhouette-like images.
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Constantan is an alloy of copper and nickel.
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Constellations are the groups into which astronomers have divided the fixed stars, and which have received names for the convenience of description and reference. It is plain that the union of several stars into a constellation, to which the name of some animal, person, or inanimate object is given, must be entirely arbitrary, since the several points (the stars) may be united in a hundred different ways, just as imagination directs.
The grouping adopted by the Egyptians was accordingly modified by the Greeks, though they retained the Ram, the Bull, the Dog, etc; and the Greek constellations were again modified by the Romans, and again by the Arabians. At various times, also, Christianity has endeavoured to supplant the pagan system, the Venerable Bede having given the names of the twelve apostles to the signs of the zodiac, and Judas Schillerius having, in 1627, applied Scripture names to all the constellations. Weigelius, a professor of Jena, even grouped the stars upon a heraldic basis, introducing the arms of all the princes of Europe among the constellations. The old constellations have, however, been for the most part retained.
Ptolemy enumerated forty-eight constellations, which are still called the Ptolemaean. They are the following: 1. The twelve signs of the zodiac. 2. Twenty-one constellations found in the northern hemisphere - the Great Bear (Ursa Major), the Little Bear (Ursa Minor), Perseus, the Dragon, Cepheus, Cassiopeia, Andromeda, Pegasus, Equulus (Horse's Head), the Triangle, the Waggoner (Auriga), Bootes, the Northern Crown (Corona Boredlis), Ophiuchus, the Serpent (Serpentarius), Hercules, the Arrow (Sagitta), the Lyre, the Swan (Cygnus), the Dolphin, the Eagle (Aquila). 3. Fifteen constellations in the southern hemisphere - Orion, the Whale (Cetus), Eridanus, the Hare (Lepus), the Great Dog (Canis Major), the Little Dog (Canis Minor), Hydra, the Cup (Crater), the Crow (Corvus), the Centaur, the Wolf (Lupus), the Altar (Ara), the Southern Fish (Piscis Australia), the Argo, the Southern Crown (Corona Australia). Others were subsequently added, this being especially rendered necessary by the increased navigation of the southern hemisphere, and now the different groups of stars have come to be associated with all sorts of animals and objects, including the Giraffe, the Fly, the Air-pump, the Compasses, etc.
The different stars of a constellation are marked by Greek letters, alpha denoting those of the first magnitude, beta,those of the second and so on. Stars of the sixth magnitude are the smallest visible to the naked eye. Several stars also have particular names.
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A contrate-wheel is a cog wheel having the teeth projecting perpendicularly to the plane of the wheel.
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Convection is the transfer of heat within a fluid (a gas or a liquid) by means of motion of the fluid (fluids are very poor conductors). In natural convection, currents of warm and cold fluid arise by virtue of the warmer parts being less dense than the cooler parts. Thus the warmer fluid rises and the colder fluid sinks under the influence of gravity. In forced
convection, some external cause, such as a fan, drives colder fluid into a warmer one, or vice versa.
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Convergent evolution is the development of superficially similar structures in unrelated organisms, usually because the organisms live in the same kind of environment. Examples are the wings of insects and birds and the streamlined bodies of whales and fish.
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 More information about Convergent Evolution
In computing, Conway's Law is the rule that the organisation of the software and the organisation of the software team will be congruent; originally stated as 'If you have four groups working on a compiler, you'll get a 4-pass compiler'. This was originally promulgated by Melvin Conway, an early proto-hacker who wrote an assembler for the Burroughs 220 called SAVE. The name `SAVE' didn't stand for anything; it was just that you lost fewer card decks and listings because they all had SAVE written on them.
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In computing, cooked mode is the normal character-input mode, with interrupts enabled and with erase, kill and other special-character interpretations done directly by the TTY driver. Most generally, 'cooked mode' may refer to any mode of a system that does extensive pre-processing before presenting data to a program.
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In computing, cookies are temporary files written to the local hard disk by a remote web server. They are generally used to allow a web server to be aware of a user's preferences when they connect again.
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Cool Edit by Syntrillium Software Corporation is a waveform editor for the IBM PC running the Windows operating system with features such as: echo, flange, reverb, stretch/pitch change, compress, brainwave synchronizer, noise reducer, envelope, filter and distortion.
Cool Edit supports batch scripting for automating tasks and supports almost every file format (including mpeg-3 and windows wav), and is used by the BBC for editing radio programs. Cool Edit was first released in 1992 by David Johnston.
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Copal is a generic term for a number of naturally occurring resins used in varnish where they are dissolved in alcohol or turpentine. In general copal is hard, shining, transparent, and citron-coloured. Indian copal, known in England aa gum anime, is produced by Vateria Indica; Madagascar copal from Hymenoea verrucosa; Brazilian copal from several species of Symenoea and Idea, and from Trachylobium martianum.
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A coping saw is a long, narrow-bladed saw with the blade held tightly in a U-bend used to cut curves in wood. A coping saw is similar to a fret saw but longer.
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Copper Sulphate (also known as blue stone) is a copper salt found naturally as chalcanthite and made by the action of sulphuric acid on copper oxide. It usually exists as blue crystals and is used in electroplating and in plant sprays, and is used as a wash to discourage mould growth in the painting and decorating trade.
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Core was an old-fashioned type of computer memory, made from doughnut-shaped
cores about 0.01 inch in diameter. These could be magnetized to store information, each holding one binary digit. Core memories were superseded in the 1970s by memories that use integrated circuits, often called silicon chips.
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In computing (especially UNIX) a core dump is a copy of the contents of core, produced when a process is aborted by certain kinds of internal error.
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Core Wars is a game between 'assembler' programs in a simulated machine, where the objective is to kill your opponent's program by overwriting it. It was popularised by A. K. Dewdney's column in 'Scientific American' magazine, this was actually devised by Victor Vyssotsky, Robert Morris, and Dennis Ritchie in the early 1960s (their original game was called `Darwin' and ran on a PDP-1 at Bell Labs).
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A core-box plane is a peculiar form of carpenter's plane which has a cutting tooth projecting below the sole to plough grooves in the parts of a core-box.
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Corel Draw is a powerful, vector-based graphics package that works under Microsoft Windows. It includes a variety of well-integrated features and offers extensive compatibility with other Windows-based programs. The drawing tools are icon-based and are very powerful. Although there are fewer basic tools in Corel Draw than in other graphics programs, each tool has multiple capabilities. The toolbox lets you draw freehand; AutoTrace or import images; scale, rotate, mirror, and edit images; and fill, pattern, or colour images. The program automatically smoothes Bezier curves, and includes calligraphic pen shapes and special fountain fills with radial or linear effects. Type can be added to any image, skewed, stretched, rotated, mirrored, fit to a curve, kerned, or altered to create custom letter shapes, or printed in any of 102 fonts. Corel Draw supports the Pantone Colour Matching System and colour blending. The program is compatible with many popular word processing and desktop publishing programs and has extensive
import/export utilities. Users can cut and paste graphics between Corel Draw and other Windows applications via the Windows clipboard and output to slide makers via the SCODL format.
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A Cornish engine is a single-acting steam-engine formerly used for pumping water. The pump-rods, appended to one end of the beam, were loaded so as by their gravity to have sufficient force to raise the water, and the down-stroke of the steam piston at the other end of the beam was used to raise them.
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In mathematics, a corollary is a collateral conclusion, following from a proposition demonstrated.
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Corona Australis (the southern crown), is one of Ptolemy's southern constellations, containing twelve stars.
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Corona Borealis (the northern crown), is one of Ptolemy's northern constellations, containing twenty-one stars.
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The Corpuscular Theory of Light was the older theory, which explained the phenomena of light by supposing that a luminous body emits excessively minute particles of matter, corpuscules as they were called, which striking the eye produce the sensation of light. Isaac Newton held the corpuscular theory, and supported it with great ingenuity. This theory has long been displaced by the undulatory theory.
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Correlation of Physical Forces was a term introduce by Sir W B Grove to denote what may more properly be called the convertibility of the various forms of energy. The energy, for instance, which a bullet in rapid motion possesses, is converted into heat when it strikes the target; the bullet being then warm to the touch. So heat may again be converted into kinetic energy, that is, the form of energy possessed by a moving body; for instance, through the intermediation of a steam-engine. Heat is also directly converted into electricity, and electricity into heat.
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Corrosion is the external chemical changes which take place in materials in ordinary use, resulting in their injury or destruction. The corrosion of metal is very important, but the corrosion of stone is also a major problem. The corrosion or iron is commonly known as rusting.
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Corrosive Sublimate is the popular name for mercuric chloride.
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Corrugated iron is sheet-iron strengthened by being bent into parallel furrows. It is largely used for roofing, and when dipped in melted zinc to give it a thin coating, is commonly known as galvanized iron. In Jamaica, galvanized corrugated iron is known as zinc.
Research Corrugated Iron
cosmic background radiation or 3 degree radiation, is electromagnetic radiation left over from the original formation of the universe in the Big Bang around 15 billion years ago. It corresponds to an overall background temperature of 3K (-2700C/-4540F), or 30C above absolute zero. In 1992 the Cosmic Background Explorer satellite, COBE, detected slight 'ripples' in the strength of the background radiation that are believed to mark the first stage in the formation of galaxies.
Cosmic background radiation was first detected 1965 by the American physicists Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson, who in 1978 shared the Nobel Prize for Physics for their discovery.
Research Cosmic Background Radiation
Cosmology is the study of the evolution and structure of the universe.
Research Cosmology
A cotton gin is a machine for separating the fibres of raw or seed cotton from the seeds. The invention of the cotton gin in 1793 by the American inventor Eli Whitney was one of the most important factors in the creation of the immense cotton industry in the USA; before that time the removal of seeds was a tedious and uneconomical manual process. A side effect of the invention of the cotton gin was a rise in the price of slaves in the USA and the end of hopes of emancipation for them at that time.
Whitney's gin, also called a saw gin, consisted of a cylinder to which a number of saw-like teeth were affixed. As the cylinder revolved, the teeth passed through the closely spaced ribs of a fixed comb. When cotton was fed into the gin, the teeth caught the cotton fibres and pulled them through the comb, leaving the seeds, which were too large to pass between the ribs, behind. This principle, with virtually no modifications, is still employed in modern automatic saw gins used to process the bulk of the American cotton crop. One disadvantage of the saw gin is that it tends to damage the fibre, particularly in the case of long-staple cottons. For ginning such cottons, which include the Egyptian, pima, and Sea Island varieties, the roller gin is used. In this gin the cotton is carried on the surface of a leather-covered roller that has a blade fixed parallel to the axis of the roller and nearly touching its surface. The cotton fibre passes under the blade on the roller, but the seeds cannot pass the blade and are forced out of the fibre. The roller gin is slow, so it is used only for premium grades of cotton.
Research Cotton Gin
Cotton-seed oil is an oil expressed from the seeds of the cotton plant. It is obtained in large quantities in the USA where the higher grade oil is used as an edible cooking oil and the cheaper grades are used for making soap.
Research Cotton-seed oil
Coumarone is a liquid organic resin compound found in coal-tar. It belongs to the benzo-furfurane class of compounds and is used as a source of resin for making varnish.
Research Coumarone
In dynamics, a couple is two equal and parallel forces acting in different directions, and applied to the same body. The distance between their lines of action is called the arm of the couple, and the product of one of the two equal forces by this arm is called the moment of the couple.
Research Couple
In chemistry, covalence is the combining of atoms by means of the sharing of electrons.
Research Covalence
Covalency is the bonding of two atoms in a molecule by the mutual sharing of a pair of electrons, one from each atom.
Research Covalency
A cow-catcher is a frame of steel bars projecting forwards and downwards from the front of a locomotive in order to prevent cattle and other obstructions from getting under the wheels of the train.
Research Cow-catcher
CP/M (Control Program for Microcomputers) is an early microcomputer OS written by hacker Gary Kildall for 8080 and Z80 based machines. It was very popular in the late 1970s but was virtually wiped out by MS-DOS after the release of the IBM PC in 1981. Legend has it that Kildall's company blew its chance to write the OS for the IBM PC because Kildall decided to spend a day IBM's reps wanted to meet with him enjoying the perfect flying weather in his private plane. Many of CP/M's features and conventions strongly resemble those of early DEC operating systems such as TOPS-10, OS/8, RSTS, and RSX-11.
Research CP/M
Crab is a name given to various machines, especially to a kind of portable windlass or machine for raising weights, etc. Crabs are much used in building operations for raising stones or other weights, and in loading and discharging vessels. They were originally called crabs on account of being equipped with claws, thereby resembling the familiar living crabs.
Research Crab
Crack is the crystalline form of cocaine.
Research Crack
In the petro-chemical industry, the term cracking applies to the heating of a hydrocarbon to the point at which it decomposes with deposition of carbon.
Research Cracking
A cramp is a metal bar with both ends bent over at right angles. It is used in masonry for firmly connecting adjacent blocks of stone, each end of the cramp being let into a stone and secured with cement or lead.
Research Cramp
A crane is a machine for raising great weights and depositing them at some distance from their original place, for example, raising bales from the hold of a ship and depositing them on the quay. Cranes are generally constructed on the principle of the wheel and axle, cog-wheel, or wheel and pinion. A very efficient wheel-and-pinion crane much used on quays consists of a jib or transverse beam, inclined to the vertical at an angle of from 40 degrees to 50 degrees, which, by means of a collar, turns on a vertical shaft. The upper end of the jib carries a fixed pulley, and the lower end a cylinder, which is put in motion by a wheel and pinion. The weight is made fast to a rope or chain which passes over the pulley and is wound round the cylinder. On turning the cylinder (either by a winch handle attached to the wheel which works in the pinion, or by the application of a motor) the weight is raised as far as necessary. The jib is then turned on its arbor until the weight is brought immediately over the spot where it is to be deposited, and the moving power is withdrawn so as to allow the weight to descend by its own gravity.
Research Crane
Craniology is the science which investigates the structure and capacity of the skull in various animals. The term was sometimes formerly also used as synonymous with phrenology.
Research Craniology
A crank is an axis with the end bent like an elbow, serving as a handle for communicating circular motion; as, the crank of a grindstone; or for changing circular into
longitudinal motion, as in some saw-mills, or longitudinal into circular motion, as in an engine. The single crank can only be used on the end of an axis. The double crank is employed when it is necessary that the axis should be extended on both sides of the point at which the reciprocating motion is applied. An exemplification of this arrangement is afforded by the machinery of boats. The bell-crank so called from its being much used in bell-hanging, is for a totally different purpose to the others, being used merely to change the direction of motion, as from a horizontal to a vertical line.
Research Crank
CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check) is a powerful error checking method for data and digital communications. The transmitting terminal computes a numeric value representative of the number of marking bits in the associated block of data and sends that value to the receiver, where the number is recomputed to compare against the block as received. Depending on the number of bits in the CRC numeric value the error trapping efficiency ranges from about 97 percent at
CRC-6 to 99.997 percent at CRC-32. Values of CRC-8 and CRC-16 are adequate for most data message block sizes, while CRC-32 is needed mainly for very long blocks of tens of thousands of characters.
Research CRC
Cream Of Tartar (Potassiun Bitartrate) exists in grapes, tamarinds, and other fruits. It is traditionally prepared from the crystalline crust (crude tartar or argol) deposited on the vessels in wliich grape juice has been fermented. The argol is dissolved by boiling with water, the mixture filtered, and the cream of tartar allowed to crystallize out. The commercial product usually contains a small percentage of calcium tartrate. It is frequently employed in medicine for its diuretic, cathartic, and refrigerant properties; as a mordant in dyeing wool; and as an ingredient in baking-powder.
Research Cream of Tartar
A cream separator is a machine for extracting cream from milk. Up to about 1877 the only method of separating the cream from the milk was by allowing the milk to stand in shallow pans until the cream rose and formed a layer on the surface by the action of gravity, being lighter than the milk. After about 1877 macjines employing centrifugal force were developed and by 1905 were in use in all large dairy establishments in the UK.
There have been various forms of separator in use, but the principle is the same in all. A steady stream of milk is allowed to run into a drum or cylinder, which is the essential part of the machine, and which is made to revolve at the rate of several thousand revolutions per minute. The force thus exerted upon the liquid drives the heavier milk to the outside and leaves the lighter cream in a layer next to the revolving axis, which may be vertical or horizontal. The exit for the cream is placed near the axis, that for the skim milk necessarily nearer the periphery. Separators have been made in sizes suitable for all dairies, and have been driven by hand, horse, steam-power, etc. Cream seperators have various advantages over the old manual method of extracting cream: the greatest quantity of cream is obtained, and in a fresh condition; no casein is left in the cream; and dairy working is greatly facilitated.
Research Cream Separator
Creosote is a generic term applied to acid liquors which are obtained during the destructive distillation of wood, and also to a fraction obtained in the distillation of coal-tar. Creosote was discovered by Reichenbach about 1831 in wood-tar, from which it may be separated by a tedious process. It is generally obtained, however, from the products of the destructive distillation of wood. In a pure state it is oily, heavy, colourless, has a sweetish burning taste and a strong smell of peat smoke or smoked meat. It is a powerful antiseptic. Wood treated with it is not subject to dry-rot or other disease. Creosote has been used in surgery and medicine with great success.
Research Creosote
The cresols (hydroxy-toluenes, methyl-phenols) are organic compounds present in the crude phenol obtained from coal-tar. They are used in antiseptics.
Research Cresol
Criminology is the science dealing with the nature and causes of crime. It is a branch of sociology and psychology. It was first developed by Cesare Lombroso, of Turin, who published a work on the subject in 1875.
Research Criminology
Crisp is a modern file editor suitable for programmers and other professionals who need to edit files on multiple Unix and Windows platforms. It incorporates most of the advanced concepts of vi, Emacs, BRIEF and various Windows products while presenting the most intuitive user interface possible.
Research Crisp
A cross-peen or Warrington hammer is a joiner's hammer with a sharpened head opposite to the face and at right-angles to the handle.
Research Cross-Peen Hammer
A crosscut saw is a type of saw used for cutting timber across the grain.
Research Crosscut Saw
Crosstalk for Windows is an asynchronous communications package that takes advantage of the Microsoft Windows graphical user environment. Similar to Crosstalk XVI, this product uses menus to help link a PC to any other PC, minicomputer, mainframe, or subscription information service. It was the first communications product available for Windows. The program's script language and macro capabilities are limited compared to other PC communications programs that automate script building. Except for the automatic scripts created for logging into public databases, the user must manually create and edit scripts to automate tasks such as logging into local systems or using a line editor such as EDLIN in DOS.
Research Crosstalk for Windows
Crosstalk XVI is a flexible menu or command-driven communication program that links your PC to any other PC, minicomputer, mainframe, or subscription information service.
Crosstalk XVI has full support for auto-dial and auto-answer modems and works as a smart terminal that emulates most popular dumb terminals. It can transfer data and programs using popular error-checking protocols such as XMODEM and KERMIT. Because all important communications parameters are available on the main status screen, you can view a single screen instead of searching through layers of screens to change particular parameters. Incoming data can be routed to any display, printer, or disk. Data can be sent from the keyboard or a disk file. The screen display shows characters sent and received by the modem and whether the modem is on or offline. The product stores and transmits login information and commands to a remote system, and public databases such as CompuServe
Research Crosstalk XVI
A crown saw is a type of saw with a blade comprising a hollow cylinder with teeth around the edge, used for cutting holes.
Research Crown Saw
A crown wheel is a type of cog with the cogs arranged at a right angle to the plane.
Research Crown Wheel
A crucible is a vessel employed to hold substances which are to be submitted to a high temperature without collecting the volatile products of the action. A crucible is usually of a conical, circular, or triangular shape, closed at the bottom and open at the top, and is made of various materials, such as fire-clay, platinum, a mixture of fire-clay and plumbago, porcelain, etc.
Research Crucible
The cryophorus is an instrument invented by Wollaston about 1812 to demonstrate the relation between evaporation at low temperatures and the production of cold. Wollaston's cryophorus consists of two glass globes united by a moderately-wide glass tube. Water is poured in and boiled to expel the air, and while boiling the apparatus is hermetically sealed. When it is to be used the water is made run into one of the globes, and the other is buried in a freezing-mixture. The aqueous vapour in the globe being thus condensed, a vacuum is produced, fresh vapour rises from the water in the other globe, which is again condensed, and this proceeds continuously until the water remaining in the globe has been, by the evaporation, cooled to the freezing-point.
Research Cryophorus
In chemistry, crystalloids are substances which, when dissolved in liquid, will diffuse through a semi-permeable membrane.
Research Crystalloids
In astronomy, culmination is the passing of a star through the meridian, when it has reached the highest point (culmen) of its apparent path in the sky.
Research Culmination
Cupellation is an ancient method of extracting silver from its ores by alloying the silver with lead, and then removing the lead from the lead-silver alloy by melting it in a receptacle made from bone-ash and called a cupel. Air is then passed over the surface of the metal, oxidising the lead to litharge which is blown off.
Research Cupellation
Cupro nickel is an alloy of copper and nickel
Research Cupro nickel
The curb-sender was an automatic signalling apparatus invented by Sir W Thomson (Lord Kelvin) and Professor Fleeming Jenkin of Edinburgh, and used in submarine telegraphy. The message was punched on a paper ribbon, which was then passed through the transmitting apparatus by clockwork. The name is due to the fact that when a current of one kind of electricity is sent by the instrument another of the opposite kind is sent immediately after to curb the first, the effect of the second transmission being to make the indication produced by the first sharp and distinct, instead of slow and uncertain.
Research Curb-Sender
Curcumin is a colouring matter formed from turmeric dissolved in alcohol.
Research Curcumin
Curie is the unit of measurement of radioactivity.
Research Curie
A curve (named from the Latin, curvus, meaning crooked), is a line which may be cut by a straight line in more points than one; a line in which no three consecutive points lie in the same direction. The doctrine of curves and of the figures and solids generated from curves constitutes what is called the higher geometry, and forms one of the most interesting and important branches of mathematical science. Curve lines are distinguished into algebraical or geometrical and transcendental or mechanical. The varieties of curves are innumerable; that is, they have different degrees of bending or curvature. The curves most generally referred to, besides the circle, are the ellipse, the parabola, and the hyperbola, to which may be added the cycloid.
Research Curve
CW (continuous wave) is the simplest form of radio signal modulation. The output of the transmitter is switched on and off, typically to form the characters of the Morse code.
Research CW
Cyamellone (hydromellonic acid) is a complex derivative of cyanogen, regarded as an acid, known chiefly in its salts.
Research Cyamellone
Cyanamide is a colourless crystalline substance. It is the amide of cyanic acid and is prepared by the interaction of ammonia and cyanogen chloride.
Research Cyanamide
A cyanate is a salt of cyanic acid.
Research Cyanate
Cyanic Acid (HCNO) is a volatile liquid prepared by the distillation of urea. It is very unstable and if heated above zero degrees Celsius explodes with the formation of a polymer cyanmelide.
Research Cyanic Acid
The cyanides are salts of hydrocyanic acid, Potassium cyanide is used in electro-plating, and in large quantities to separate gold from its ores, especially in South Africa.
Research Cyanide
Cyanin (also known as anthokyan and anthocyanin) is the blue colouring matter of certain flowers, such as the violet and corn-flower. The name is also given to a pigment obtained from those petals of flowers which are blue by digesting them in spirits of wine.
Research Cyanin
Cyanine is one of a series of artificial red or blue dyes obtained from quinoline and lepidine and used in calico printing.
Research Cyanine
Cyanogen is a colourless gas with a peculiarly characteristic peach-blossom odour. It is inflammable and extremely poisonous. It is obtained in combination, forming an alkaline cyanide when nitrogen or a nitrogenous compound is strongly ignited with carbon and soda or potash. It conducts itself like a member of the halogen group of elements, and shows a tendency to form complex compounds. It is derived from Prussian blue, and was first obtained in the free state by Gay Lussac in 1815, being the first instance of the isolation of a compound radical.
Cyanogen is found in the commercial substances, potassium cyanide, or prussiate of potash, yellow prussiate of potash, Prussian blue, Turnbull's blue, prussic acid, etc.
Research Cyanogen
The Cyanometer is an instrument invented by Saussure for ascertaining the intensity of colour in the sky. It consists of a circular piece of metal or pasteboard, with a band divided by radii into fifty-one portions, each of which is painted with a shade of blue, beginning with the deepest, not distinguishable from black, and decreasing gradually to the lightest, not distinguishable from white. The observer holds this up between himself and the sky, turning it gradually round until he find the tint of the instrument exactly corresponding to the tint of the sky.
Research Cyanometer
The Cyanotype process is a photographic picture obtained by the use of a cyanide. This process was formerly in very common use by architects and engineers for copying plans, producing an image with white lines upon a blue ground (hence a blue print). Sensitive paper was made by brushing it over with a solution of ferric oxalate (10 grains to the ounce); it was then exposed under the positive and treated with a solution of potassium ferricyanide, by which the image was developed. The colour of the ground was deepened by subsequent washing with a solution of potassium bisulphate.
Research Cyanotype
A cyanurate is a salt of cyanuric acid.
Research Cyanurate
Cyanuric acid, also known as tricarbimide, is an organic acid. It was first obtained by heating uric acid or urea, and was then called pyrouric acid; afterwards it was obtained from isocyanic acid. It is a white crystalline substance, odourless and almost tasteless.
Research Cyanuric acid
Cybernetics is the study of systems in which the action of a mechanism is controlled by information received from an external source.
Research Cybernetics
A cycloid is a curve generated by a point in the plane of a circle when the circle is rolled along a straight line and kept always in the same plane. The genesis of the common cycloid may be conceived by imagining a nail in the circumference of a wheel; the curves which the nail describes while the wheel runs forward are cycloids. The cycloid is the curve of swiftest descent, that is, a heavy body descending by the force of its own gravity will move from one point of this curve to any other point in less time than it will take to move in any other curve which can be drawn between these points. Also, a body falls through any arc of an inverted cycloid in the same time whether the arc be great or small. The cycloid is very important in the higher branches of mechanics.
Research Cycloid
A cyclone is an area of low atmospheric pressure. The term was originally applied to the violent storms which occur in the Bay of Bengal and other parts of the tropics, generally after an ominous calm and a sudden drop in atmospheric pressure. In a region where a cyclone exists, the pressure decreases from the outside inwards, so that the pressure reading of a barometer is always low near the centre. The steeper the pressure gradient, the higher the wind velocity. The winds blow spirally inwards towards the centre, counter-clockwise in the northern hemisphere, and clockwise in the southern. Outside of the tropics a cyclone is usually called a depression, in allusion to the lowering of the barometer height. Depressions vary greatly in size. the diameter may be as low as 160 km, but they average nearer 1600 km in diameter. A depression is, as a rule, accompanied by a lot of cloud and rain. The air in front of a depression feels humid, but towards the rear it becomes fresh and chilly. depressions are not stationary.
The velocities and paths of their centres depend on many factors. They move faster in winter than in summer, and deep depressions faster than shallow ones. The average velocity varies from region to region, in the USA the average being about 40 kmh, in Europe closer to 25 kmh, the winter velocity being roughly double the summer. The term anticyclone was first used by Sir Francis Galton to describe a condition of pressure and circulation just the reverse of the cyclonic condition.
Research Cyclone
Cyclooctatetraene is a colourless, flammable, liquid cyclic hydrocarbon used in organic research.
Research Cyclooctatetraene
A cycloscope was a former machine for measuring at any moment the velocity of rotation, for example of a wheel of a steam engine.
Research Cycloscope
A cyclostyle was a contrivance for producing manifold copies of writing or drawing. The writing or drawing was done with a style carrying a small wheel at the end which marked minute punctures in the paper, thus converting it into a stencil. Copies were then produced with the stencil and an inked roller.
Research Cyclostyle
A cyclotron is an apparatus for imparting energies in the order of millions of electron-volts to charged particles by causing them to follow a spiral path inside a pair of hollow semicircular electrodes between which an oscillating voltage is applied.
Research Cyclotron
A cylinder is the name given to the revolving square prism carrying the cards in a Jacquard loom.
Research Cylinder
In paper making, a cylinder engine is a machine in which a cylinder takes up the pulp and delivers it in a continuous sheet to the dryers.
Research Cylinder Engine
In a steam engine, a cylinder face is the flat part of a steam cylinder on which a slide valve moves.
Research Cylinder Face
Cymene (also called paracymene, and formerly camphogen) is a colourless, liquid, combustible hydrocarbon, with a pleasant odour, obtained from oil of cumin, oil of caraway, carvacrol, camphor, etc.
Research Cymene
Cymidine is a liquid organic base derived from cymene.
Research Cymidine
Cystine is a white crystalline base containing sulphur. It occurs as a constituent of certain rare urinary calculi, and is occasionally found as a sediment in urine, and in most proteins especially the keratins in hair, wool and horn.
Research Cystine
Cytisin is an alkaloid detected in the ripe seeds of the Laburnum. It is of a nauseous taste, emetic and poisonous.
Research Cytisin
Cytochrome is a type of protein.
Research Cytochrome
Cytology is the science of the structure and functions of organic cells.
Research Cytology
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