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The V-band is the frequency band from 46,000 to 56,000 Mhz employed in radar.
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V.32bis is the ITU standard for 14400 bps modulation.
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V.32terbo is AT&T's proprietary protocol for 19200 bps asynchronous communications.
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V.34 is the ITU standard for 28800 bps and 33600 bps modulation.
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V.90 is the ITU standard for 56K modulation.
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V.FC is Rockwell's proprietary protocol for 28800 bps asynchronous communications.
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A vacuum is a space from which the gas has been removed. In fact it is impossible to obtain a perfect vacuum as any material surrounding a vacuum will have a vapour pressure and will thus release particles into the vacuum. In general use the term refers to gases at very low pressures such as exist at the limit of the earth' s atmosphere. The nearest to a perfect vacuum is in space, where the concentration of particles may be as low as one per cubic centimetre, a level of vacuum that has been unable to be replicated on Earth.
Imperfect vacuums may be produced by an air-pump. The piston air-pump can only go on working while the air remaining in the vessel that is being exhausted has enough elasticity to lift the valves of the pump. Consequently the vacuum thus produced must always be incomplete. Mercurial air-pumps, used in exhausting the bulbs of filament lamps, etc, can be made to produce a much more nearly perfect vacuum, a pressure of only one sixty-millionth of an atmosphere being possible. Still higher degrees of exhaustion have been produced by the methods of Sir James Dewar, who employed very low temperatures. At such temperatures the air and other residual gases in an exhausted vessel or vacuum tube can be liquefied, and so a vacuum nearer perfection temporarily obtained.
By the use of dense charcoal, which, when cooled down to a temperature of some 180 to 200 degrees Celsius below zero, absorbs any gases with which it is in contact, the vacuum approaches completeness.
The measurement of a vacuum is made by observation of the character of the electric discharge in it, or by the M'Leod gauge. The latter measures the pressure of the vacuum by allowing mercury to enter. An electric discharge is ribbon-like at first, followed by a luminous glow, and a fluorescent appearance of the glass container, as the exhaustion becomes more complete. In the perfect vacuum no discharge takes place.
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A vacuum brake is a type of brake largely used on railway trains. It acts by the differences of pressure on each side of a piston in an exhausted air chamber.
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A vacuum cleaner is a portable electrical appliance that cleans with the aid of suction. The first
vacuum cleaner was an industrial device powered by a petrol engine, patented by Hubert Booth in Britain in 1901. Portable electric vacuum cleaners were developed in the USA, the first being marketed by William Hoover in 1908. Cylinder vacuum cleaners were first made in Stockholm, Sweden, in about 1913. A cylinder vacuum cleaner contains a motor-driven suction fan that creates a partial vacuum inside the machine. Air is drawn in through a flexible hose fitted with various hand tools used to loosen debris from the surface being cleaned. The debris is then filtered from the air stream by a fabric or disposable paper bag. An upright vacuum cleaner contains a cylindrical ' beater bar', fitted with small brushes to loosen the dirt, in addition to the vacuum action. Some
vacuum cleaners are combinations of these two designs, and others employ detergent sprays for cleaning heavily soiled carpets.
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Vacuum distillation is a distillation process used for materials that have very high boiling-points or are likely to decompose below their boiling-point. Air is evacuated from the apparatus with a vacuum pump, and the vacuum so formed causes the materials being heated to boil at a temperature lower than they would under normal atmospheric pressure. This enables distillation to take place at lower temperatures. One example of its use is in petroleum refining.
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A vacuum engine is an engine of small power, which derives its force from air pressure against one side of the piston, which has a partial vacuum on the other side of it. At the beginning of an outstroke, a valve in the head of the cylinder opens and admits a charge of burning gas and air, which is trapped by the closing of the valve and expands. Towards the end of the stroke the charge comes into contact with a water-cooled part of the cylinder and is chilled, causing a sudden drop in pressure sufficient to suck the piston - which is open towards the crank - back on the return stroke. The valve opens again in time for the piston to expel the burnt gases before the next outstroke begins.
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A vacuum pump is a device for removing air from laboratory apparatus. The pump may be required because the materials to be handled are air-sensitive or because a low pressure is needed--for example, in vacuum distillation. A reliable vacuum can be obtained using a motor-driven oil pump. For very low pressures, the additional use of a mercury vacuum pump is required, in which a diffused jet of mercury vapour is injected at the inlet port and drives gas molecules towards the outlet. Another low-pressure pump is the turbo-molecular pump, basically a very high-speed turbine. In a 'getter' pump, a film of some active substance such as titanium is deposited in the evacuation chamber and reacts chemically with any gas molecules present, thus removing them from the chamber.
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A vacuum tube is a glass tube made in various shapes, and filled with air or gases at pressures below that of the atmosphere. Wires fused through the ends project into the interior. If these wires be connected with the terminals of an induction coil, and charges of high-tension electricity be passed through the tube, the interior becomes luminous. The character and colour of the glow vary with the nature of the contents, the degree of rarefaction, and the shape and composition of the tube. Very beautiful effects are obtained with nitrogen, hydrogen, and carbonic oxide gases. The shape of a discharge in a tube is affected by exterior magnetic influence.
Sir William Crookes, using very high vacua, discovered that rays from the cathode terminal of a tube, though invisible themselves, rendered the walls of the tube phosphorescent. Lenard subsequently proved that the rays could affect objects outside the tube. Rontgen in 1895 announced tlie discovery of cathode rays different from those observed by Crookes, as they could not be deflected by a magnet or prism. These are called X-rays.
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A vacuum-flask (popularly known as a Thermos flask, which is a trade name) is a double-walled vessel with the space between the two walls exhausted of air as completely as possible. It was originally devised by Sir James Dewar for preserving liquefied gases at very low temperatures from evaporation. The nature of heat transference means that the substance contained in a
vacuum-flask remains at its temperature for very much longer than if it were in an ordinary single walled vessel.
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In chemistry, valence is a number that represents the combining power of an element or radical.
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In chemistry, valence electrons are the electrons located in the outermost shell of an atom.
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Valency is the maximum combining power of a chemical element. The valency is expressed in relation to the number of hydrogen atoms with which one atom of another element can combine. For example, chlorine, bromine, and iodine combine with or can replace one atom of hydrogen, these elements being called univalent or monads. When an element such as oxygen combines with two atoms of hydrogen it is termed bivalent or dyad, when with three atoms (eg nitrogen), trivalent or triad, and with four (eg carbon), quadrivalent or tetrad.
Other elements show higher valencies, the terms used being quinquivalent or pentad, sexivalent or hexad, septivalent or heptad, and octavalent or octad. Where an element such as argon does not combine with another element it is said to be non-valent. The valency of the elements has been ascertained by experiment.
Valencies are indicated in what are known as graphic symbols by bonds, eg hydrogen chloride (hydrochloric acid) is shown as H-Cl. There is, however, the difficulty that some elements do not exhibit a constant valency. Phosphorus, for instance, combines with chlorine in two proportions, one containing three atoms of chlorine, and the other five, To explain this it is suggested that there are differences in the condition of the atoms, especially in their states of motion.
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Valeric acid is one of the fatty acids. It occurs in four isomeric modifications: (1) normal valeric acid or propylacetic acid, obtained by heating normal butyl cyanide with potash ; (2) inactive valeric acid or isopropylacetic acid, found naturally in valerian root or prepared by oxidising amyl alcohol; (3) methyl ethyl acetic acid ; and (4) trimethyl acetic acid. Inactive valeric acid forms salts known as valerates, those of ammonium and zinc being employed in medicine. Both the acid and its salts have a distinctive smell resembling that of old cheese.
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A valve is a device for controlling the passage of liquids and gases through pipes and other channels. Automatic valves, operated by the fluid itself, include pump valves of all kinds, safety-valves, and reducing valves. Mechanically operated valves, the movements of which have a definite time-relation to the movements of other parts, independently of the fluid, are used in hydraulic, steam, gas, and oil engines to govern the admission of the working fluid to the cylinders and its expulsion therefrom. Stop-valves, regulating valves, etc, are worked directly or indirectly by hand.
In electronics, a valve is a device consisting of two or more metal plates enclosed in an evacuated glass bulb. One of the metal plates is heated, causing electrons to be emitted. If a positive charge is applied to the other plate, the electrons will move towards it and the valve will conduct electricity. Valves have largely been superseded by transistors which are smaller.
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The Van Allen radiation belts are doughnut-shaped regions in the Earth's atmosphere that contain energetic electrically charged particles, mainly protons and electrons. They were discovered by the American scientist James Van Allen in 1958 when cosmic ray detectors on board the first US satellite Explorer I registered signals too high to record when they entered the belts at a height of 2,000 km. The belts extend to a height of 20,000 km or more. The particles in the belts originate both from the solar wind and from cosmic rays and are trapped by the magnetic field of the Earth.
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A Van de Graaf Generator is a machine for generating voltages in the order of a few megavolts for such applications as the production of high-energy X-rays and for nuclear research. The Van de Graaf generator was invented by the American physicist Robert van de Graaff in 1931 and consists of a vertical, continuous, motorized belt, which is continually charged from an external source at one point by friction against a roller. The belt transfers the charge to a large, insulated, hollow metal dome, where a high voltage is produced. Eventually, the accumulated potential can be fed to an electrode and used to accelerate particles. The name was coined by a Seventies rock group.
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Van der Waals' forces are a type of weak intermolecular force that exists between all pairs of atoms and molecules that are not chemically bonded; they give rise to the existence of solids and liquids, affect the surface tension and viscosities of liquids, and cause gases to cool when they expand suddenly. Although the exact nature of van der Waals' forces varies from case to case, the most general cause is the correlation of the motions of the electrons in two adjacent molecules, producing an attractive force. The motion of the electrons in one molecule only affects the electrons in another when the molecules are very close, and
van der Waals' forces operate only over short distances. The forces increase as the number of electrons in a molecule increases, so the boiling-points of the halogens increase from fluorine to iodine and those of the alkanes increase as the carbon chain lengthens. These forces are named after their discoverer Johannes van der Waals.
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Vanadium is a greyish, malleable, ductile, polyvalent metallic element found combined in minerals and used especially to form alloys such as high tensile steel. It has the symbol V. Vanadium is a light grey or white metal with a melting point between 1700 and 1800 degrees Celsius. The metal was discovered by Del Rio in 1801 and occurs only in combination in a number of minerals, including vanadinite, mottramite, etc. All the minerals in which it occurs are rare, vanadinite being the commonest. Vanadium forms a number of oxides, a suboxide, monoxide, dioxide, trioxide and a pentoxide. The lower oxides are mettalic powders.
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Vandyke brown is a deep brown pigment richer in colour than burnt umber, which was once derived from a natural peaty earth found in Germany, and was later prepared by the partial decomposition of beechwood bark or cork. Vandyke brown is a semi-transparent pigment used as both an artists' colour and in painting and decorating. An imitation Vandyke brown is commonly encountered made from ochre, iron oxide and lampblack.
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A vane is a thin metal plate, one of a number, used in the construction of fans and turbines. In fans the vanes are set at an angle and induce a current of air ; in turbines the vanes are of different construction. and great numbers of them are attached to the periphery of a wheel mounted on a shaft.
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Vaporization is the conversion of a liquid, or less commonly a solid, into a vapour. In the case of a solid the process is called sublimation. Vaporization requires a definite amount of energy, the latent heat, which may be provided by heating, but if vaporization is made to occur without heating, the latent heat will be taken from the surroundings. This is why the cooling of a moistened fingertip tells us when it is facing the wind; the wind evaporates the water, and the vapour takes latent heat out of the finger. The pressure exerted by a vapour of any substance is its vapour pressure.
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In physics, vapour is the gaseous form assumed normally by a liquid and occasionally by a solid when passing out of those states.
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Vapour deposition is a method of manufacturing materials, particularly in the form of thin films, by the deposition of gas or vapour atoms or molecules on a substrate.
In chemical vapour deposition (CVD), the gas or vapour decomposes in a surface reaction to form a solid layer: decomposition is activated either by heat or by direct excitation using laser light. CVD is used to manufacture semiconductor devices, wear-resistant ceramic films, diamond films, and ceramic or glass fibres.
In physical vapour deposition (PVD) the vapour, produced by high-temperature evaporation of a solid or liquid in a vacuum, is condensed on to the substrate. PVD is used to manufacture semiconductor devices, and to evaporate thin layers of aluminium on to plastic food packaging films, or on to polycarbonate discs in the manufacture of compact discs. A vapour can also be produced at normal temperatures by the technique of sputtering. Sputtering is a physical process in which ions extracted from an inert gas (for example, argon) are accelerated and bombarded upon the solid target material that is to be deposited. The target atoms are ejected by this bombardment and deposit on a substrate. Sputtering is used mostly in the deposition of metals, which are difficult to deposit by other means.
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Vapour pressure is the contribution to the pressure of the atmosphere or any gas by the molecules of the vaporized liquid which it contains. For example, damp air contains water vapour and this contributes to the overall pressure of the air. Normally the term refers to the saturated vapour pressure, that is, the pressure when there is an equilibrium between the liquid and the vapour in contact with it, with as many molecules passing from liquid to vapour as are passing from vapour to liquid. The vapour is said to be saturated. The saturated vapour pressure increases with temperature. The air is not usually saturated with water vapour because of the effect of air currents, but if it is, dew can form.
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Vaseline is a propriety name for a jelly left on distillation of petroleum. It is insoluble in water, and was originally used for damp proofing steel and in some ointments.
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The VAX (from Virtual Address eXtension) is the most successful minicomputer design in industry history, possibly excepting its immediate ancestor, the PDP-11. Between its release in 1978 and its eclipse by micro computers after about 1986, the VAX was noted for its large, assembler-programmer- friendly instruction set.
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VBScript is an interpreted computer language supported by some client Web browsers. It is Microsoft' s answer to Netscape's JavaScript and is based upon Visual Basic.
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In mathematics a vector (from the Latin for carrier) is any quantity involving direction and magnitude. Such a quantity is usually represented by a line with an arrow. Vector quantities in physics are those quantities which can be represented by a vector. Such quantities are linear velocities, a force acting on a body, etc. Vector analysis is that branch of mathematics which is concerned with the properties of vectors. This is of particular use in physics, e.g. the electro-magnetic theory.
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Vector graphics are images described by mathematical expressions, rather than 'bitmaps'.
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Velocity is the rate at which a point or particle changes its position. The change in the position of a particle must have both magnitude and direction, so that velocity is a vector quantity. It may vary both in regard to its magnitude and to its direction, and its magnitude may be constant while its direction continually varies, as when a train goes round a curve.
To measure a particle's velocity, two things must be determined ; (a) the space over which the particle has moved in a given time; (b) the change of direction of motion during this time. Hence, if a particle moves in a straight line and so preserves a constant direction, and passes over equal spaces in successive equal times, its linear velocity is said to be constant. If, however, it is moving in a circle, say, and passes over equal arcs in equal times, its speed is constant, but its linear velocity is not. Constant speed is measured by dividing the space passed over in any given time by that time. Unit speed is such that unit space is passed over in given time.
The unit of velocity is that velocity with which a point passes over unit length in unit time, e.g one foot per second or one meter per second. Angular velocity is angular speed round an axis. To define it fully, a straight line must be given in length, direction, and position, and is known as a rotor or localised vector.
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Venetian Red is a permanent red pigment composed of ferric oxide originally found naturally in Italy, then later obtained by igniting ferrous sulphate.
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Ventura Publisher is a powerful, high-end desktop publisher that produces typographic-quality documents on the PC. It works with documents in a chapter format to effectively handle long documents such as reports and manuals, as well as shorter publications such as flyers and newsletters. Ventura's built-in text editor works with documents in word processing format. A dynamic link between the word processing file and the text in Ventura automatically reflects edits made in either file. A WYSIWYG display shows the page composition process. Ventura can crop, size, and scale graphics brought into a page. The program can produce simple graphics such as line, circle, and box drawings which can be placed around a section of a document. Document size is virtually limitless; documents can be produced with up to 128 chapters, with 300 pages each. Ventura uses the GEM Desktop graphical interface (the product comes with a runtime version of GEM). There is no need to open windows, pass data between applications, or transport graphics with a clipboard. Instead, create a frame within a document and import text or graphics from other programs.
To design a document, select a text file and attach a predesigned style sheet (or create a new one). The style sheets make it easy to create uniform, standard format for repetitive use such as monthly reports. Importing a graphics image is done the same way: create a frame and import the image. Ventura automatically scales the image to fit the frame. Images can be resized and scaled as required. One of Ventura's strong points is handling file formats and directories. To import files, work through a menu that allows choice of file type and moves it to the needed directory. The list of files used in a document is always present.
Files can be loaded from any directory, making it easy to choose files from multiple directories on multiple disks. Because of its dynamic text and graphics link and strong file-handling capabilities, the product is good for creating integrated typeset- quality publications that incorporate files from word processing, spreadsheet, and graphics programs such as a multicolumn brochure with charts imported from a graphics product and data imported from a spreadsheet. Ventura automatically generates indexes, tables of content, and lists of illustrations. Ventura has a complete set of typographic features that can be used to customise layouts. Multiple views of the page layout can be seen and enlarged to emphasise details. Ventura is a complex package and is not recommended for casual use. There are over 250 on-line help screens that speed up the learning process. Once mastered, there are a number of features that speed up the use of the program. For example, control key commands allow by passing of standard menus and quick movement around the package.
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A venturi tube is a device for measuring the flow of liquids in pipes.
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Verdigris is a mixture of acetates of copper used in making some green pigments. It forms on the surface of copper and brass when they are exposed to damp, and is highly poisonous.
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Vermilion is a variety of mercuric sulphide. Vermillion was originally obtained from cinnabar, but was later prepared artificially either by subliming the black sulphide obtained on heating sulphur with mercury or by a wet process. Vermilion is a brilliant scarlet, very heavy solid which when finely ground makes a beautiful and permanent pigment.
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A vernier is an auxiliary scale, invented by Pierre Vernier, which enables the reading of the smallest divisions of a graduated scale. It is important in theodolites, sextants and the mountings for telescopes for accurate determination of angular positions.
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Vfat is an extended MS-DOS computer filesystem used by Microsoft Windows 95, Windows NT and later Microsoft systems. Vfat added the capability for long filenames under the MS-DOS filesystem.
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A viaduct is a bridge carrying a road over another road, or a railway over a road.
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Videotex is the generic term for television-based information systems, using computers holding extensive databases. One format, called viewdata, is an interactive system enabling the user to conduct a dialogue with a remote computer, using a microcomputer, a modem, and a telephone link. Viewdata is used in business and leisure, including home shopping and making travel and theatre reservations. Another format of videotex, teletex, was developed in the UK in the 1970s and provides information as 'pages', selectable by the viewer, transmitted in unused areas of a standard television signal.
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The ViDir/ViRes File Monitor System by Vahnzinn international is a utility computer program that determines what files you never use, backs them up, and then deletes them, helping you save up to 80% of your disk space without deleting the programs or data files you use. It also helps you determine which, of all your files, are used the most, so you can move them to a RAM disk, and which word processor or spreadsheet files you need to take with you on a trip or to print your documents on another PC.
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Vinegar is a four percent solution of acetic acid also containing small amounts of phosphates and other extractive matters. It is generally made by fermenting decoctions of malt, first with yeast, and then converting the alcohol into acetic acid by means of micro-organisms.
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Violet is a shade of purple in which red predominates.
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The Viper V550 is a PC graphics card based upon the nVidia Riva 128 TNT chipset and targeted at business users rather than computer games players. The V550 supports Microsoft Direct3D and also OpenGL.
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Viridian or Guignet's Green is a hydrated chromic oxide obtained by decomposing borate of chromium with water. It is a permanent and rich coloured pigment of a fine brilliant green colour with an almost metallic lustre which is permanent to light, stable and inert. Viridian is used as an artists' colour and also mixed with zinc chrome to produce 'permanent green'.
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VirtualDub is a computer program for the Windows operating system for capturing video with video for windows compatible devices. VirtualDub also offers facilities for fractional frame rates; optimised disk access for more consistent hard disk usage; the capacity to create AVI2 (OpenDML) files to break the AVI 2GB barrier and multiple files to break the FAT32 4GB limit; An integrated volume meter and histogram for input level monitoring; real-time downsizing, noise reduction, and field swapping; verbose monitoring, including compression levels, CPU usage, and free disk space.
VirtualDub enables the user to access hidden video formats your capture card may support but not have a setting for, such as 352x480.
VirtualDub also lets you clean up video on your computer. VirtualDub isn't an editor application; it' s a pre- and post-processor that works as a valuable companion to one: with facilities to read and writes AVI2 (OpenDML) and multi-segment AVI clips and has integrated MPEG-1 and Motion-JPEG decoders. VirtualDub enables you to remove and replace audio tracks without touching the video. Also provided are an extensive video filter set, including blur, sharpen, emboss, smooth, 3x3 convolution, flip, resize rotate, brightness/contrast, levels, deinterlace, and threshold.
VirtualDub supports decompressing and recompressing of both audio and video, and allows you to remove segments of a video clip and save the rest, without recompressing.
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A virus is an infectious particle consisting of a core of nucleic acids enclosed in a protein shell.
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Viscose is a yellowish, syrupy solution made by treating cellulose with sodium hydroxide and carbon disulphide. The solution is then regenerated as continuous filament for the making of rayon and as cellophane.
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Vitamins are chemical substances which are used by animal bodies for growth and repair of certain tissues and cells. They were first named by Dr Casimir Funk in 1912.
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Vitamin A (carotene) occurs in certain fats and the fatty parts of some foods. It is used by the human body to enable the eyes to perceive light, and to promote growth in children and to protect moist areas of the body such as the lining of the respiratory tract.
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Vitamin B refers to a group of over eleven vitamins. Including Thiamine, Riboflavin, Nicotinic Acid, Pyridoxine, Pantothenic acid, biotin and other substances.
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Vitamin B12 (cyanocobolamin) is a deep-red crystalline, water-soluble solid found in liver, milk, eggs and fish. A deficiency can result in disorders of the nervous system and anaemia.
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Vitamin B2 (riboflavin) is a vitamin essential for growth. It was formerly known as vitamin G.
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Vitamin B3 (nicotinic acid, niacin) is a crystalline acid found in meat and yeast and produced by the oxidation of nicotine. A deficiency of vitamin B3 causes pellagra, suggesting that vitamin B3 is essential for brain activity and the health of the skin and mucous membranes.
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Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) is a substance found in cereals, fish and meat and used by the body to produce haemoglobin.
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Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) is used by animal bodies for the production of the immune system, and maintenance of the skin and other cells. Vitamin C occurs almost exclusively in vegetable matter, and is destroyed by heat.
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Vitamin D (Calciferol) is a substance which assists animal bodies to lay down calcium and phosphorus in bones. Vitamin D is mainly found in animal matter, and can also be produced by the body from sunlight. A deficiency of vitamin D can give rise to the disease rickets.
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Vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol) is a pale-yellow, viscous fluid found in vegetable oil, eggs, cereals and butter and used in the body as an anti-oxidant and to maintain cell membranes.
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Vitamin G is a former name for riboflavin.
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Vitamin H (biotin) is a crystalline, water-soluble vitamin of the Vitamin B group. It is present in all living cells and is used as a growth factor and a catalyst in carboxylation.
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Vitreous Enamel is an opaque or transparent glaze, generally coloured, which adheres to a suitable metallic surface when applied in a liquid state.
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VNC (Virtual Network Computing) is an open-source, cross-platform, remote control software application which allows one to view and interact with one computer (known as the 'server') using a simple program (known as the 'viewer') on another computer anywhere on the Internet. The two computers don't have to be using the same type of operating system, so for example VNC can be used to view and access an office Linux machine on a PC running the Windows operating system at home. VNC is freely and publicly available and is in widespread active use by millions throughout industry, academia and privately. VNC comprises two programs: a server which resides on the remote computer to be accessed and controlled by a remote computer, and a viewer application which is loaded onto the remote computer from which the operator wishes to access the remote computer. Both pieces of software are very small, fast and easy to use.
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Voice morphing is a technology developed at the Los Alamos National Laboratory in New Mexico, USA by George Papcun and publicly demonstrated in 1999. Voice morphing enables speech patterns to be cloned and an accurate copy of a person's voice be made which can then say anything the operator wishes it to say, appearing in the voice of someone else. Voice morphing has tremendous possibilities in military psychological warfare and subversion, particularly in conjunction with the use of recorded telephone conversations as evidence in courts of law. An agency can use voice morphing to provide a fake confession or incriminating evidence appearing to be spoken by a suspect which in reality is fake. Voice morphing is a powerful battlefield weapon which can be used to provide fake orders to the enemy's troops, appearing to come from their own commanders.
In 1990, the US department of defence considered using voice morphing to produce a propaganda recording of Iraqi president Saddam Hussein, which could then be distributed throughout the Arab world and Iraq to discredit the Iraqi leader.
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The volt is the unit of electromotive force. It was named after Alessandro Volta.
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A voltmeter is an instrument for measuring electro-motive force, or pressure in volts.
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