In architecture wainscot is a wooden lining or boarding of the walls of apartments, usually made in panels. The term originally seems to have implied rough planks of oak timber, and subsequently to have been given to wooden panelling, to which they were converted, for lining the inner walls of houses and churches. It was very extensively employed during the reigns of Queen Elizabeth I and James I, and for a long period afterwards. The name has long ceased to be confined to oak panelling. Research Wainscot
The Wall of Antoninus or Graham's Dyke was a barrier erected by the Romans across the isthmus between the Forth and the Clyde, in the reign of Antoninus Pius. Its western extremity was at or near Dunglass Castle, its eastern at Carriden, and the whole length of it exceeded 27 miles. It was constructed in 140 by Lollius Urbicus, the imperial legate, and consisted of a ditch 40 feet wide and 20 feet deep, and a rampart of stone and earth on the south side 24 feet thick and 20 feet in height. It was strengthened at each end and along its course by a series of forts and watch-towers. It may still be traced at various points. Research Wall of Antonius
In architecture the wash is the upper surface of a member or material when given a slope to shed water. Hence, the term is applied to a structure or receptacle shaped so as to receive and carry off water, as a carriage wash in a stable. Research Wash
A washboard (baseboard, mopboard or scrubboard) is a board, or other woodwork, carried round the walls of a room and touching the floor, to form a base and protect the plastering. Research Washboard
A watch box is a building used to house a guard to guard a cemetery. Watch boxes were built in Britain during the 18th century to guard cemeteries from body-snatchers. Research Watch Box
In architecture a water joint is a joint in a stone pavement where the stones are left slightly higher than elsewhere, the rest of the surface being sunken or dished. The raised surface is intended to prevent the settling of water in the joints. Research Water Joint
In architecture a water wing is one of the two walls built on either side of the junction of a bridge with the bank of a river, to protect the abutment of the bridge and the bank from the action of the current. Research Water Wing
Wattle and daub is an ancient method of constructing walls. Flexible wooden rods, often hazel, of about one meter length and one centimetre diameter, are woven together and onto this framework a mixture of clay, chopped straw and animal dung (daub) is firmly pressed in. Research Wattle And Daub
In architecture a weatherboard is a board extending from the ridge to the eaves along the slope of the gable, and forming a close junction between the shingling of a roof and the side of the building beneath. The name is also given to a clapboard or feather-edged board used in weatherboarding. Research Weatherboard
In architecture, weathering is a slight inclination given to horizontal surfaces, especially in masonry, to prevent water from lodging on them. Research Weathering
The wee mac is a complex ornamental clay chimney pot comprising a tall cylindrical shaft, with downwards pointing outlets towards its lower end, a louvre just below the top and the top splayed and serrated like a tulip pot. Research Wee Mac
Weepers also called Mourners, are statues in attitudes of mourning often placed in niches round altar-tombs, as on that of Richard earl of Warwick, in the Beauchamp chapel at Warwick. Research Weepers
In architecture a well staircase is a staircase having a wellhole as distinguished from one which occupies the whole of the space left for it in the floor. Research Well Staircase
In architecture a wellhole is an open space in a floor, to accommodate a staircase. The name is also given to the open space left beyond the ends of the steps of a staircase. Research Wellhole
The White House is the house or executive mansion at Washington, of the President of the United States. It is called the White House because it is painted white. The cornerstone was laid in 1792, and President Adams was the first President who occupied the mansion. It was completed in 1800. When the British held Washington for a single day in 1814, the White House was burned together with the Capitol and other buildings. Congress authorized its restoration in 1815, and it was again ready for occupation in 1818 and has been occupied by each successive President since that time. Its model was the house of the Duke of Leinster at Dublin. Research White House
Whiting is a material prepared by grinding and pulverising natural chalk. Whiting loses its opacity when mixed with water, but regains it when the water evaporates. Whiting is unaffected by the alkaline properties of new plaster and is used in the preparation of distempers. Whiting mixed with raw linseed oil forms putty. Research Whiting
A wigwam is the hut or dwelling place of the north-eastern Algonquian Indians of North America. There are four main types of wigwam: domed, peaked, tepee-shaped and the bark house. The domed wigwam was made of saplings driven into the ground and bent over to form a framework of arches over which spread birch or elmbark or reedmats. Research Wigwam
In architecture, a wind-beam is a cross-beam used in the principals of many ancient roofs, occupying the situation of the collar in modern king-post roofs. Research Wind-Beam
In architecture a winder is one in a flight of steps which are curved in plan, so that each tread is broader at one end than at the other as distinguished from a flyer. Research Winder
Windows employed in classical architecture are usually rectangular openings without any internal splay, with architraves and other ornaments on the exterior, very similar to those of the doorways, but sometimes they have arched heads and occasionally small circular and semicircular windows are used.
In modern buildings, windows called Venetian windows, are sometimes introduced. They are of large size, divided by columns, or piers resembling pilasters, into three lights, the middle one of which is usually wider than the others, and is sometimes arched. In the arrangement and character of their ornaments they resemble the windows used in classical architecture.
In medieval architecture the windows vary most materially in the several styles. In the class of buildings spoken of as Saxon Architecture they are generally small, and when in situations to require glazing have often a large splay both externally and internally, as at the churches of Clapham, Bedfordshire; Woodstone, Huntingdonshire; and Caversfield, Buckinghamshire, but sometimes the inside only is splayed, and the external angle of the jamb merely chamfered, as at Daglingworth, Gloucestershire, or the jamb is left square, as at Brixworth, Northamptonshire. In churchtowers and situations where glazing is not necessary, they are frequently of two or more lights, divided by small pillars, or piers, usually resembling balusters, with the jambs constructed without any splay either internally or externally. The heads of the windows in this style are formed of semicircular arches or of long stones placed on end upon the imposts, and leaning against each other at the top, so as to form a triangle.
In buildings of the early Norman style the windows are generally of rather small proportions, but in those of later date they are often of considerable size. The most ancient examples are usually very little ornamented, having only a small chamfer or a plain shallow recess round them externally, and a large splay within,, but sometimes there is a small shaft on each side in the external recess, and a label-moulding over the arch.
This mode of decoration prevails throughout the style, and is made to produce a bold and rich effect by the introduction of mouldings and other ornaments in the arch, and sometimes in the jambs, the number of shafts also is sometimes increased. The richest examples are met with in buildings of late date, although numerous specimens remain of all periods, up to the very end of the style, which are perfectly plain or have only a few simple mouldings on the outside. There are some Norman windows divided by shafts, or small piers, into two or more lights. These are often placed in shallow recesses with arched heads, embracing the whole breadth of the window. They are found principally in towers and in situations where glazing is not required. A few examples of circular windows of this style remain, as in the eastern transept of Canterburycathedral, and the clear-story of the nave of SouthwellMinster, and another has existed at the west end of Iffleychurch, Oxfordshire, neither of these appears ever to have had mullions or tracery of any kind. But other specimens at the churches of Barfreston and Patricksbourne, Kent, and at the Temple church, London, which are of later date, and partake in some degree of the Early English style, are divided by small shafts or mullions, arranged like the spokes of a wheel.
The insides of the windows of this period, except those in belfries and in other situations where they are not intended to be glazed, are almost invariably splayed, and are frequently without any kind of ornament. When decorations are used they are similar both in character and mode of application to those of the exterior, though generally inferior to them in richness and amount. The proportions of the openings are very various throughout the existence of the Norman style, but the most elongated specimens are usually late. They are sometimes placed in pairs, and occasionally in triplets, towards the end of the style, so close to each other that the space between the internal splays is not more than sufficient to receive the decorations with which the windows are surrounded, but mullions are not used.
In the Early English style the proportions of windows vary very greatly, but the majority of them are long and narrow. They are used singly, or combined in groups of two, three, five, and seven. When grouped in this manner, they are not infrequently placed so near to each other that the stone work between them is reduced to a real mullion, and in such cases they are generally surmounted by a large arch embracing the whole number of lights; but in the majority of examples the spaces between the windows are more considerable, except in those of late date, many of which are separated by mullions, and have the space between the heads of the lights and the arch over them pierced with circles, quatrefoils, or other openings, producing very much the effect of the windows of the succeeding style. In belfries, spires, etc, where glazing is unnecessary, two or more openings, separated by small shafts, placed under one arch, are not uncommon. A very prevalent mode of ornamenting the windows of this style, especially on the insides, is with small shafts, which are usually detached from the other stone-work, and stand quite free. They are often made of a finer material than the rest of the window, and polished. The amount of decoration employed is very various. Many examples are perfectly plain within, and have only a single or double chamfer, or small splay, externally. Others, when equally plain on the exterior, have shafts and mouldings within. Some others have the interior and exterior equally enriched, and some have the greatest amount of decoration externally, but in general, when there is any difference, the inside is the most highly ornamented.
The jambs are always splayed on the inside, and the inner arch is most commonly unconformable to that over the actual opening of the window, springing usually from a lower level. This arch, even when the jambs are perfectly plain, has a chamfer on the inner edge, or a small suit of mouldings, which generally project below the soffit, and either die into the jambs, or rest upon a corbel on each side. A few examples have the heads of the openings formed of trefoil or cinquefoil arches, as at Sturrey, Kent, and, occasionally, in those of late date they are feathered. There are various beautiful specimens remaining of circular windows of this style, as at the cathedrals of York and Lincoln, and BeverleyMinster. There are also fine examples of the same date in many of the French churches, as at the cathedrals of Laon and Chartres; they are filled with tracery formed of small shafts radiating from the centre, and sustaining small arches, or with circles, trefoils, &c are also occasionally to be met with, but they are usually small, and in the subordinate parts of buildings, as at YorkMinster.
In the Decorated style windows are enlarged and divided by mullions into separate lights, and have the heads filled with tracery. In the early examples the tracery is formed of geometrical patterns, but in the more advanced specimens other and more flowing forms are introduced, and progressively increase until the early arrangement almost disappears; the heads of the lights and the majority of the piercings of the tracery are almost always feathered. Occasionally windows are met with of this date with transoms, but they are very rare except in domestic work, and in spires and towers where not intended to be glazed. The heads of the windows in this style are of various forms, the most prevalent are two-centred pointed arches of different proportions, but besides these, segmental arches, both plain and pointed, are used, and ogees. Square heads are also common.
The inner arches are frequently of different shapes and proportions from those over the tracery, and, even when the inner jambs are perfectly plain, are generally chamfered or moulded in the same manner as the corresponding arches in the Early English style. Many Decorated windows which have elaborate tracery are almost destitute of mouldings; the mullions are often only splayed, and the jambs provided with one or two additional mouldings of the simplest character; but in enriched buildings there are generally several subordinations of mullions, and the jambs are filled with a variety of mouldings. In common with those of the preceding and following styles, they are always splayed in the inside. There are some circular windows of this date, of which a magnificent example remains at Lincolncathedral. Squares, triangles, and other unusual forms, are also occasionally to be met with, but they are generally small.
The principal differences between the windows of the Perpendicular style and the preceding style, consist in the altered arrangement of the tracery, the frequent introduction of transoms, and the shapes of the heads, which are very often formed of four-centred arches, and ogees are nearly or quite disused; in other respects they do not differ materially, although the character of the mouldings becomes changed, and some of the subordinate parts are modified, as the style gradually emerges from the Decorated style. Small circles, quatrefoils, and squares, are common, but no examples of large windows of these shapes can be referred to except those in the transepts of Westminsterabbey, and these are insertions into earlier work, which would not well admit of any other form. As the Perpendicular style becomes debased, the heads of the windows grow gradually flatter, until they cease to be arched, and the opening is divided by the mullions into plain rectangular lights. This kind of window prevails in buildings of the time of Queen Elizabeth I and King James I, and is found in work of the time of James II and even later, until superseded by the sash window.
There is a very remarkable window found in a great number of churches, which requires to be particularly noticed. It is of small size, and at a convenient height from the floor for a person to look out through it. The usual situation is at the western end of the south side of the chancel, but it is sometimes on the north, and is occasionally found on both sides, as at Dunchurch, Warwickshire; at Bidborough, Kent, it is at the eastern end of the south side of the nave; at Sende, Surrey, there is a window of this kind in the usual situation on the south side of the chancel, and others of very similar character, but of two lights, at the eastern end of both sides of the nave. In many cases, instead of a small window of this description, the large window over the place which it would occupy is elongated, and the additional portion at the bottom is parted off by a transom. No example of these windows has been noticed of a date prior to the Early English style, and the majority are later, though they are found inserted in Norman churches.
The purpose for which they were intended is at present unknown, and of those which have been suggested some are impossible, and others very improbable, because the windows are not convenient for them. It is certain that they were not intended to admit light, because they are constantly found below larger windows. Many of them retain hooks in the jambs, showing that they have been originally provided with casements or shutters, these are generally in the situation usually occupied by the glass, as at Packwood, Warwickshire, but are sometimes on the inner surface of the wall, and in one or two instances the shutter remains. Hence it is evident that the use of these windows was intended to be under the control of some person within the building, as no one on the outside could open a shutter or casement fixed on the inside of the wall.
In some churches windows are to be found at the eastern ends of the sides of the nave, placed nearer to the floor than the other windows, and sometimes of smaller size than the rest, as at Cuddesden and Bucknell, Oxfordshire. They appear to be quite distinct from the little windows before mentioned, and possibly were intended to allow worshippers in the church-yard to see an altar or some particular image within the building. Research Window
The World Trade Center was one of the world's tallest buildings, located in New York, USA and comprising two towers each of 110 floors, housing tens of thousands of employees including those who worked at the New York (Wall Street) stock exchange. At 0900 on the 11th of September 2001, just as the world financial markets were about to open, two hijacked passenger planes crashed into the towers, one into each, a few minutes apart, causing both towers to collapse about thirty minutes later. Research World Trade Center
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Abbreviations
Architecture
Research Wagon Ceiling
