Catacombs ( derived from the Greek kata, meaning down, and kumbos, meaning a hollow or recess) are caves or subterranean places for the burial of the dead, the bodies being placed in graves or recesses hollowed out in the sides of the cave. Caves of this kind were common amongst the Phoenicians, Greeks, Persians, and many oriental nations.
In Sicily and Asia Minor numerous excavations have been discovered containing sepulchres, and the catacombs near Naples are remarkably extensive. Those of Rome, however, are the most important. The catacumbae is said to have been originally applied to the district near Rome which contains the chapel of St Sebastian, in the vaults of which, according to tradition, the body of St Peter was first deposited; but (besides its general application) it is now applied in a special way to all the extensive subterranean burial-places in the neighbourhood of Rome, which extend underneath the town itself as well as the neighbouring country, and are said to contain not less than 6,000,000 tombs. They consist of long narrow galleries usually about 2.4 metres high and 1.5 metres wide, which branch off in all directions, forming a perfect maze of corridors. Different stories of galleries lie one below the other. Vertical shafts run up to the outer air, thus introducing light and air, though in small quantity.
The graves or loculi lie longwise in the galleries. They are closed laterally by a slab, on which there is occasionally a brief inscription or a symbol, such as a dove, an anchor, or a palm-branch, and sometimes both. The earliest that can be dated with any certainty belongs to the year 111 AD. It is now regarded as certain that in times of persecution the early Christians frequently took refuge in the catacombs, in order to celebrate there in secret the ceremonies of their religion; but it is not less certain that the catacombs served also as ordinary places of burial to the early Christians, and were for the most part excavated by the Christians themselves.
In early times rich Christians constructed underground burying-places for themselves and their brethren, which they held as private property under the protection of the law. But in course of time, partly by their coming under the control of the church and partly by accidents of proprietorship, these private burying-grounds were connected with each other, and became the property, not of particular individuals, but of the Christian community. In the 3rd century AD there were already several such common burying-places belonging to the Christian congregations, and their number went on increasing until the time of Constantine, when the catacombs ceased to be used as burying-places.
From the time of Constantine down to the 8th century they were used only as places of devotion and worship. But their use as formal places of worship can only have been occasional, for the limited dimensions even of the largest rooms, and the extreme narrowness of the passages, must have made it impossible for any large number to take efficient part in the services at one time. But though the idea of the catacombs as regular places of worship may be carried too far, there is no doubt, from the episcopal chairs, altars, basins, etc, found within them, and from the subjects of the mosaics and carvings on the walls, that the rites of the church, and particularly the eucharist and the sacrament of baptism, were often celebrated there.
They could never have cerved as dwelling-places for any length of time to the Christians, residence in most of them for more than a short time being very dangerous to the health.
During the siege of Rome by the Lombards in the 8th century the catacombs were in part destroyed, and soon became entirely inaccessible, so that they were forgotten, and only the careful and laborious investigations of archaeologists, amongst whom De Rossi (Roma Sotterranea) and Parker (The Catacombs) may be mentioned, have thrown anything like a complete light on the origin and history of the catacombs.
There are extensive catacombs at Paris, consisting of old quarries from which has been obtained much of the material for the building of the city. In them are accumulated bones removed from cemeteries now built over. Research Catacomb
Mucilage is a gum-like substance frequently present in the cell walls of aquatic plants and in the seed coats of certain other species. Mucilages are hard when dry and slimy when wet. Like gums they probably have a general protective function or serve to anchor the plant. Some organisms including certain bacteria are completely covered with mucilage and in such cases it probably prevents water loss. Research Mucilage
The Pilgrim Fathers were the first settlers in Massachusetts. In 1608, a party of Puritans, chiefly from the north of England, weary of the constant religious persecutions, left England and settled at Amsterdam, whence they later moved to Leyden. But they could not conform to the customs of Holland. Accordingly in 1617, Robert Cushman and John Carver were sent to England to treat with the Virginia Company for a grant of settlement in its territory in America. This was readily obtained.
Early in 1620, the Pilgrims embarked from Delfthaven in the ship Speedwell, a vessel chartered in Holland. Arriving at Southampton, they found the Mayflower, which Cushman had brought from London, awaiting them. On August the 5th, 1620, the Mayflower and the Speedwell left Southampton for the New World.
The cricoid cartilage is a ring-shaped structure which reinforces the lower larynx where it meets the trachea. It serves as the anchor point for the arytenoid cartilages (which pivot upon the back part of the cricoid cartilage). The arytenoid cartilages are also connected to the cricoid cartilage by cricoarytenoid muscles. The vocal cords are attached to the arytenoid cartilages, from which they span across the larynx to the inside part of the thyroidcartilage on the other side of the airway. By flexing or relaxing the cricoarytenoid muscles, the arytenoid cartilages are forced to pivot, causing the vocal cords to be brought together for speech or separated, for breathing. The vocal and cricothyroid muscles then regulate the degree of tension in the vocal cords, changing the tone of voice during speech. Research Cricoid Cartilage
The molars are located at the back of the mouth behind the premolars. The crown of each molar features three cusps which facilitate the grinding and chewing of food. The first and second molars are represented by deciduous counterparts in the child, though the third molar (also called the ' wisdom tooth') is not and does not usually erupt until the ages of 18-20. In many people, one or more of the third molars never erupts, leaving 31,30,29, or even 28 teeth total. The first and second molars' roots feature multiple root stems which anchor them in the maxilla and mandible - the upper ones usually have three, while the lower ones have two. The third
molars have what appears to be fused-pair root systems. The root stems may differ, with the possibility of serious dental repair being necessary to correct any malformed root structures. Research Molars
The periodonteum (or periodontal membrane) is a layer of connective tissue around a tooth which helps anchor it in the alveolus. The periodonteum is similar to the supportive periosteal membrane in bones, as it carries the nerves and blood vessels which supply nourishment to the pulp cavity of the tooth. Research Periodonteum
The premolars are located between the canines and the molars. The crown of each premolar features two cusps which facilitate the grinding and chewing of food. The premolars are not represented in deciduousteeth, but are permanent teeth which erupt once the child approaches nine or ten years of age. The premolar roots feature single root stems which anchor them in the maxilla and mandible, similar to the incisors and canines. Research Premolars
The spine of the scapula is a ridge which runs laterally along the posterior surface of the bone. This spine separates the surface of the back of the scapula into two unequal areas: the supraspinous fossa and the infraspinous fossa. The spine continues laterally to form the coracoid process and the acromion (which articulates with the clavicle). The spine and these two projections serve to anchor much of the connective tissue in the shoulder. The trapezius and deltoidmuscles are especially responsible for giving the scapula its stability and strength during movement. Research Spine of the Scapula
The spinous process is a projection of bone from the arch of almost every vertebra toward the posterior. This projection is located at the apex of the arch and bordered on the arch by the laminae. It is the series of these processes which is visible as the bumps beneath the skin on the back. The spinous process serves as an anchor point for ligaments which help control the flexibility of the spine. The vertebrae feature different types of spinous processes. Typical cervical vertebrae have bifid spinous processes, with the exception of the atlas which has no spinous process. Thoracic vertebrae generally have a single tubercle, and point downward as well as back. The lumbarvertebrae feature spinous processes which are rectangular or hatchet-shaped and have a section which points back and one which points down. The spinous processes of the sacrum and coccyx are generally fused together, to form a ridge called, in the sacrum, the sacral crest. Often, the coccygeal vertebrae (fused or not) show no evidence of any ridge, crest, or
spinous process. Research Spinous Process
The Probert Encyclopaedia was designed, edited and programed by
Matt and Leela Probert
Abbreviations
Research Catacomb
