Agrarian laws were laws enacted in ancient Rome for the division of the public lands, that is, the lands belonging to the state (ager publicus). As the territory of Rome increased the public land increased, the land of conquered peoples being always regarded as the property of the conqueror. The right to the use of this public land belonged originally only to the patricians or ruling class, but latterly the claims of the plebeians on it were also admitted, though they were often unfairly treated in the sharing of it. Hence arose much discontent among the plebeians, and various remedial laws were passed with more or less success. Indeed an equitable adjustment of the land question between the aristocracy and the common people was never attained. Research Agrarian Law
The Alta California was a weekly publication established at San Francisco on January the 3rd 1849 by Samuel Brannan. It was the first newspaper of any importance issued in California, and arose from a consolidation of the older journals the Star and then Monterey Californian. In 1850 the Alta California commenced daily publication. Research Alta California
The Augsburg Confession was a document which was presented by the Protestants at the Diet of Augsburg, 1530, to the Emperor Charles V and the diet, and being signed by the Protestant states was adopted as their creed. Luther made the original draught;
but as its style appeared too violent it was given to Melanchthon for amendment. The original is to be found in the imperial Austrian archives. Afterwards Melanchthon arbitrarily altered some of the articles, and there arose a division between those who held the original and those who held the altered Augsburg Confession. The former is received by the Lutherans, the latter by the German Reformed. Research Augsburg Confession
In the feudal law, banns were a solemn proclamation of any kind; hence arose the present custom of asking banns, or giving notice before marriage. Research Banns
The Borrowing Days are the last three days of March. They are so named from the popular notion in Scotland and some parts of England, that they were borrowed by March from April. The fiction is of great antiquity, and probably arose in the observation of a frequent wintry relapse about the end of March. Research Borrowing Days
Boxing Day is the day following Christmas day. It has long been a holiday in England, and is so named from the custom of bestowing Christmas-boxes which arose in the early days of the church, when boxes were placed in the churches for the reception of offerings. These boxes were opened on Christmas day, and their contents distributed by the priests on the next day, (boxing day). Research Boxing Day
Byzantine art is the symbolic system which was developed by the early Greek or Byzantine artists out of the Christian symbolism. Byzantine Art arose in South-eastern Europe after Constantine the Great had made Byzantium the capital of the Roman Empire in 330 AD and ornamented that city, which was called after him, with all the treasures of Grecian art.
One of the chief influences in Byzantine art was Christianity, and to a certain extent Byzantine art may be recognized as the endeavour to give expression to the new elements which Christianity had brought into the life of men. The tendency towards Oriental luxuriance and splendour of ornament now quite supplanted the simplicity of ancient taste. Richness of material and decoration was the aim of the artist rather than purity of conception. Yet the classical ideals of art, and in particular the traditions of technical processes and methods carried to Byzantium by the artists of the Western Empire, held their ground long enough, and produced work pure and powerful enough, to kindle the new artistic life which began in Italy with Cimabue and Giotto.
With regard to sculpture the statues no longer displayed the freedom and dignity of ancient art. The true proportion of parts, the correctness of the outlines, and in general
the severe beauty of the naked figure, or of simple drapery in Greek art, were neglected for extravagant costume and ornamentation and petty details. Yet in the best period of Byzantine art, from the 6th to the 11th century, there is considerable spiritual dignity in the general conception of the figures. But sculpture was of second-rate importance at Byzantium, the taste of those times inclining more to mosaic work with the costliness and brilliant colours of its stones.
The first germ of a Christian style of art was developed in the Byzantine pictures. The artists, who appear to have seldom employed the living model, and had nothing real and material before them, but were obliged to find, in their own imaginations, conceptions of the external appearance of sacred persons, such as the mother of Christ or the apostles, could give but feeble renderings of their ideas. As they cared but little for a faithful imitation of nature, but were
satisfied with repeating what was once acknowledged as successful, it is not strange that certain forms, approved by the taste of the time, should be made, by convention, and without regard to truth and beauty, general models of the human figure, and be transmitted as such to succeeding times. In this way the artists in the later periods did not even aim at accuracy of representation, but were contented with stiff general outlines, lavishing their labour on ornamental parts.
Byzantine architecture may be said to have assumed its distinctive features in the church of St Sophia built by Justinian in the 6th century, and still existing as the chief mosque in Constantinople. It is more especially the style associated with the Greek Church as distinguished from the Roman.
The leading forms of the Byzantine style are the round arch, the circle, and in particular the dome. The last is the most conspicuous and characteristic object in Byzantine buildings, and the free and full employment of it was arrived at when by the use of pendentives the architects were enabled to place it on a square apartment instead of a circular or polygonal. In this style of building incrustation, the incrustation of brick with more precious materials, was largely in use. It depended much on colour and surface ornament for its effect, and with this intent mosaics wrought on grounds of gold or of positive colour are profusely introduced, while coloured marbles. and stones of various kinds are greatly made use of. The capitals are of peculiar and original design, the most characteristic being square and tapering downwards, and they are very varied in their decorations.
Byzantine architecture may be divided into an older and a newer (or Neo-Byzantine) style. The most distinctive feature of the latter ia that the dome is raised on a perpendicular circular or polygonal piece of masonry (technically the drum) containing windows for lighting the interior, while in the older style the light was admitted by openings in the dome itself. The Cathedral of Athens is an example of the Neo-Byzantine style.
Chivalry is a term which indicates strictly the organization of knighthood as it existed in the middle agea, and in a general sense the spirit and aims which distinguished the knights of those times. The chief characteristics of the chivalric ages were a warlike spirit, a lofty devotion to the female sex, a love of adventure, and an undefinable thirst for glory. The Crusades gave for a time a religious turn to the spirit of chivalry, and various religious orders of knighthoodarose, such as the Knights of St John, the Templars, the Teutonic Knights, etc.
The education of a knight in the days of chivalry was as follows: In his twelfth year he was sent to the court of some baron or noble knight, where he spent his time chiefly in attending on the ladies, and acquiring skill in the use of arms, in riding, etc. When advancing age and experience in the use of arms had qualified the page for war, he became an esquire, or squire. This word is from the Latinscutum, a shield, it being among other offices the squire's business to carry the shield of the knight whom he served. The third and highest rank of chivalry was that of knighthood, which was not conferred before the twenty-first year, except in the case of distinguished birth or great achievements. The individual prepared himself by confessing, fasting, etc; religious rites were performed; and then, after promising to be faithful, to protect ladies and orphans, never to lie nor utter slander, to live in harmony with his equals, etc, he received the accolade, a slight blow on the neck with the flat of the sword from the person who dubbed him a knight. This was often done on the eve of battle, to stimulate the new knight to deeds of valour; or after the combat, to reward signal bravery.
The rules of chivalry only applied to the nobility. While knights on the battle field and in combat enjoyed rules of engagement and a degree of mutual respect - with the notable exception of the Battle of Agincourt where the captured French knights were murdered at the order of king Henry V - peasants, or the ordinary common folk, were slaughtered and raped by knights as though they were not human at all, and certainly not treated in a chivalrous fashion. Research Chivalry
Christmas-boxes are boxes in which presents were deposited at Christmas; hence a Christmas gift. The custom of bestowing Christmas-boxes arose in the early days of the church, when boxes were placed in the churches for the reception of offerings;
these boxes were opened on Christmas day, and their contents distributed by the priests the next day (boxing day). Research Christmas-Boxes
The Coercion Acts were Acts passed by the British parliament for the purpose of enforcing law and order in Ireland. Since the Union in 1800 the British Parliament was obliged to pass several Coercion Acts, especially towards the middle of the 19th century, when the Fenian Society aroused English feeling by various outrages.
In 1880 and 1881, when the agrarian movement in Ireland developed into something resembling a system of organised terrorism, culminating in the Phoenix Park murders, Gladstone's government, so as to put a stop to the state of lawlessness prevailing in the country, passed the Coercion Act of 1881, and the Crimes Act of 1882. By the first, the Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland was empowered to arrest any person on meresuspicion, for treason and intimidation. A Coercion Bill, introduced by Balfour in 1887, was put in force in 1918, when the need again arose for the repression of crime in Ireland. Research Coercion Acts
The Probert Encyclopaedia was designed, edited and programed by
Matt and Leela Probert
Abbreviations
Research Agrarian Law
