The ammoniaphone was an instrument of the 19th and early 20th centuries, consisting of a metallic tube containing some substance saturated with ammonia, peroxide of hydrogen, and a few flavouring compounds, fitted with a mouthpiece to breathe through, which was said to render the voice strong, clear, rich, and ringing by the inhalation of the ammoniacal vapour. It was invented by Dr. Carter Moffat, and was suggested by the presence of ammonia in some quantity in the atmosphere of Italy - the country of fine singers. Research Ammoniaphone
An Atmospheric Railway is a railway so called in consequence of the motive power being derived from the pressure of the atmosphere, or from compressed air. The idea of thus obtaining motion was first suggested by the French engineer Papin, about 1700. In 1810, and again in 1827, a Mr. Medhurst published a scheme for 'propelling carriages through a close-fitting air-tight tunnel by forcing in air behind them' and in 1825 a similar project was patented by a Mr. Yallance of Brighton. About 1835 a Mr. H. Pinkus, an American residing in England, patented a pneumatic railway. The carriages were to travel on an open line of rails, along which a cast-iron tube of between 3 and 4 feet diameter was to be laid, having a longitudinal slit from 1 to 2 inches wide and closed by a flexible valve along its upper side, through which a connection could be formed between the leading carriage and a piston working within the tube. This method was improved by Messrs. Clegg and Samuda, who in 1840 tried some experiments on a portion of the West London Railway with sufficient success to induce the government to advance a loan to the Dublin and KingstownRailway Company, for the construction of a pneumatic line from Kingstown to Dalkey. It was opened for passenger traffic at the end of 1843, and was worked for many months. The London and Croydon Company subsequently obtained powers for laying down an atmospheric railway by the side of their other line from London to Croydon, and in experimental trips in 1845 a speed of 30 miles an hour was obtained with sixteen carriages, and of 70 miles an hour with six carriages. But during the intense heat of the summer of 1846 the iron tube frequently became so hot as to melt the composition which sealed the valve, and the line had to be worked by locomotives. The mechanical difficulty of commanding a sufficient amount of rarefaction led to the abandonment of the system for railway purposes. It was revived, however, for the conveyance of letters and
arcels in towns by means of tubes of moderate diameter laid beneath the streets, but not proceeded with. Within offices, however, atmospheric railways or rather pneumatic despatch systems are used notably within the supermarket chain Sainsburys where cash from tills is put into a cylindrical container which is closed and inserted into a pressurised pipe system for conveyance to the cash office. Research Atmospheric Railway
The chinook is the warm dry wind at the eastern base of the Rocky Mountains, and presents the same features as the fohn winds of Switzerland. The chinook winds descend from the Rockies, and while they are chiefly found in Montana and Wyoming, they also extend from the southern part of Colorado up into Canada as far as the Arctic circle. The high temperatures are confined to the valleys, and occur in streaks or pockets so that a traveller frequently passes suddenly from a very warm to a very cold atmosphere. Research Chinook
Dew is a deposition of water from the atmosphere upon the surface of the earth in the form of minute globules. During the day the earth both absorbs and emits heat, but after sunset its supply of warmth is cut off, though it still continues to radiate heat into the surrounding space. Grass, flowers, and foliage being good radiators, lose after sunset the heat which has previously been absorbed by them, without receiving any in return, and their temperature consequently falls considerably below that of the atmosphere. From the proximity of these cold substances the particles of vapour in the adjoining air are condensed and deposited upon their surfaces in the form of dew, or of hoar-frost where the temperature of the earth is below freezing.
When the sky is clouded the heat abstracted from the earth's surface by radiation is restored by the clouds, which, being good radiators, send back an equal amount of heat to what they receive; and a balance of temperature being thus maintained between the earth and the surrounding atmosphere, no dew is formed. The deposition of dew is likewise prevented by wind, which carries away the particles of air before the vapour contained in them has been condensed. Horizontal surfaces, and those which are exposed to a wide expanse of sky, receive a greater supply of dew than sheltered or oblique surfaces, where circumstances diminish the amount of radiation. The radiation from the earth's surface is one of those happy provisions for the necessities of living beings with which nature everywhere abounds.
The heavy dews which fall in tropical regions are in the highest degree beneficial to vegetation, which, but for this supply of moisture, would, in countries where scarcely any rain falls for months, be soon scorched and withered. But after the high temperature of the day the ground radiates under these clear skies with great rapidity, the surface is quickly cooled, and the watery vapour, which, from the great daily evaporation, exists in large quantities in the atmosphere, is deposited abundantly. This deposition is more plentiful also on plants, from their greater radiating power; while on hard, bare ground and stones, where it is less wanted, it is comparatively trifling.
In cold climates the earth, being cold and moist the clouds prevent the radiation of heat; the surface is thus preserved warm, and the deposition of dew is, in a great measure, prevented. Research Dew
In geography, a fohn is a hot, dry, local Alpine wind produced by the desiccation of an air current in passing over the mountain ranges and its subsequent heating by compression on being drawn into the denser valleyatmosphere. Research Fohn
Frost is the name given to the state of the weather when the temperature is below the freezing-point of water. The intensity of the cold in frost is conveniently indicated by the popular expression so many degrees of frost, which means that the temperature of the atmosphere is so many degrees below the point at which the freezing of water commences.
Frost is often very destructive to vegetation, owing to the fact that water, which is generally the chief constituent of the juices of plants, expands when freezing, and bursts, and thus destroys, the vesicles of the plant. In the same way rain-water, freezing in the crevices of rocks and roads, breaks up their surfaces, and often detaches large fragments.
Hoar-frost is frozen dew. It may either freeze while it is falling, when it is found loosely scattered on the ground; or being deposited as dew in the early part of the night it may freeze during a subsequent part of it, owing to radiation. It is generally seen most profusely in spring and autumn; because at those times, while on clear nights the cold is sufficient to freeze the dew, the days are at the same time sufficiently warm to cause a very considerable quantity of moisture to evaporate into the air.
The leveche is the hot, dry southerly wind of Spain, which comes from the moderately high lands of Africa. It is of the nature of the sirocco, the atmosphere being very dry and full of fine dust particles. Research Leveche
The meeting of the Long Parliament (as it was afterwards called) in November 1640 ended the great days of the English monarchy, and sowed the seeds for the English Civil War. The Commons were determined on reform; they meant to put an end to the king's unconstitutional methods in both Church and State. Charles I himself, though he seldom faced facts, saw that some concessions would be necessary. But a real settlement was not achieved, chiefly because tempers were rising and the atmosphere soon became that of a revolution. Charles was partly to blame. He had no real desire for a lasting understanding with Parliament, and his shifty character aroused general distrust. But he found that the more he gave way to Parliament, the more it demanded. John Pym, a squire of Somerset, was the acknowledged leader of the Commons.
His enemies nicknamed him 'King Pym'. He was 'the first great popular organiser', for he used the press, the petition, and even the platform to support his cause. He now led the attack on the chief instruments of the late personal government. The judges who had upheld Charles's financial exactions in the Courts were arrested and imprisoned, and so was Archbishop Laud, who was beheaded in 1645. But the principal victim was Strafford. He was charged with having tried to 'subvert the fundamental laws and government of England and Ireland, and instead thereof to introduce an in March arbitrary and tyrannical government against law'. 1641 he was brought to Westminster Hall to be tried for high treason. But his accusers were at once faced with a difficult point. Strafford may have tried to 'subvert the laws'; but treason meant treason to the king, and had Strafford been a traitor to Charles? It was difficult to prove that he had, and as the trial proceeded it became clear that the verdict would be Not Guilty. But the Puritan majority in the House was determined that Strafford should die. Parliament therefore passed a special Bill of Attainder, condemning the minister to death without trial.
The Lords passed the Bill of Attainder, and it remained for the king to give or to withhold his consent. Some may think that it was Charles's duty to risk his life to defend Strafford. But the mob raged round Whitehall, howling for blood. Charles feared for the safety of the queen and his children, and he gave way. ' If my own person only were in danger', he told the Council, with tears in his eyes, 'I would gladly venture it to save Lord Strafford's life.' Three days later the earl was led to his execution in May 1641 in the presence of a crowd of 200000 people who had come to witness the end of 'Black Tom Tyrant'. No man ever died more bravely. 'I thank my God', he said, as he prepared to die, 'I am not afraid of death, but do as cheerfully put off my doublet at this time as ever I did when I went to bed.' The executioner offered to cover his eyes with a handkerchief. 'Thou shalt not bind my eyes.' said Strafford, 'for I will see it done.' And so he placed his head upon the block.
His misfortune, wrote Laud, was that 'he served a mild and gracious prince, who knew not how to be, or be made great'. That summerParliament was busy passing a number of Acts intended to make absolute government impossible for the future. One Act declared that the presentParliament could not be dissolved without its own consent; another - the Triennial Act - that in future Parliaments should be Called every three years. The three Courts by which the king and Laud had carried out their religious and financial measures were abolished - the Star Chamber, the Court of High Commission, and the Council of the North. Finally Ship-Money and other arbitrary forms of taxation were declared illegal. These abolitions of the year 1641 were the permanent, constructive work of the Puritan revolution; nor were the institutions then destroyed restored with the monarchy in 1660. Meanwhile another Bill had come up for discussion. A petition was presented to Parliament praying for the ending of episcopacy (that is, the rule of the Church by bishops) 'in all its roots and branches'.
The thorough-going Puritan members considered the petition, and a 'Root-and-Branch' Bill in 1641 was prepared, but it fell through. For now a new factor came into play. Hitherto a large majority, both of Lords and Commons, had been united in their opposition to the king. But this Bill divided parliamentarians for the first time. There were many who began to fear extremes; and a moderate party now sprang up. It was out of this debate on the Root-and- Branch Bill that the germs of the future Roundhead and Cavalier parties were formed. The extremists - the Roundheads - included Pym, Hampden, and Oliver Cromwell. The chief figures on the other side were LordFalkland and Sir Edward Hyde, afterwards the famous Earl of Clarendon, the future Chancellor and historian. Parliament adjourned for six months, but met again at the end of October. It had no sooner assembled than terrible news arrived from Ireland. Now that the stern hand of Strafford was withdrawn, the crushed Irish had risen against their lords. There was a sudden and horrible rebellion thousands of Protestants were massacred in cold blood. When this news was received in London it only served to increase the Puritanfury. Meanwhile the Commons drew up a Grand Remonstrance in November 1641, in which they recited the past acts of the king and his servants to which they objected - there were 201 items - and stated a programme for the future. Some of its clauses prayed the king to reduce the power of the bishops and to remove 'oppressions in religion'. Another clause asked His Majesty to employ ministers 'such as the Parliament may have cause to confide in' - which in later times solved the problem of disputes between king and Parliament.
All this shows that Parliament had considerably advanced its demands. During the months from November 1640 to September 1641 they, had succeeded in placing constitutional checks on the king's power. From November 1641 to August 1642 they were bent on seizing control of both Church and State, until they forced Charles to reply: ' If I granted your demands, I should be no more than the merephantom of a king.' The Grand Remonstrance was passed by a majority of only eleven - a fact which illustrates the growth of the anti-Puritan party.
The situation, at the end of 1641, was dangerous in the extreme. On the one hand the queen and the swaggering ' Cavaliers' of the Court were urging Charles to strike at King Pym and his fellow leaders before it was too late. On the other hand, London was a stronghold of Puritanism, and it was the London merchants who had felt the weight of Charles's taxation most heavily. The London ' prentices' and the king's swordsmen were itching to get at one another's throats. Never the less Pym proceeded steadily on his way. He was determined to deprive the king of the command of the militia; for it was obvious that if the Irish rebellion was to be crushed a militia must be called out. And once Charles had command of the national armed forces, would he not use them to crush Parliament and destroy English liberty for ever? Pym had no doubt that he would. A Militia Bill was therefore brought in, and - contrary to all English law and custom - it took the command of the military forces out of the king's hands. To this Charles of course refused his consent.
Early in January 1642 he took the queen's advice, and instructed the Attorney- General to impeach Pym, Hampden, and three other leading members of the Commons. The members were alarmed, but Charles promised them 'on the word of a king' that no violence should be done them. The next day - the 4th of January 1642 - he went down to the House with 400 swordsmen. He left his guard at the door, and walked in accompanied only by Prince Rupert, his German nephew. But the five members, warned of his intention, had fled by river. There was a dead silence as the king looked round. He asked the Speaker, Lenthall, where the missing members were. 'I have neither eyes to see', Lenthall replied, 'nor tongue to speak in this place, but as this House shall direct me.' There was another pause as Charles scanned the benches. 'I see', he said at last, 'all the birds are flown. I do expect you will send them to me as soon as they shall return hither.' Then, amid cries of 'Privilege, privilege', he walked out. By this revolutionary act the king had outlawed himself. All hope of reconciliation being now past, he determined to try the issue of war. He left his capital on the 10th of January, sent the queen out of the country, and took up his quarters at York. Parliament claimed the control of the militia and secured the command of the fleet. During the spring and summer of 1642 both sides were busy raising troops. The great strength of the Puritan cause was London. The city contained a tenth of the population of England - 500000 out of five million. The number of troops which London provided was more than sufficient to quell any Royalist opposition in the surrounding country. The London 'train-bands' therefore protected the Puritan leaders during the eight months that the king was gathering his army in the north - January to August 1642. And so the English Civil War started. Research Long Parliament
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Research Ammoniaphone
