In English law, attachment is a taking of the person, goods, or estate by virtue of a writ or precept. It is distinguished from an arrest by proceeding out of a higher court by precept or writ, whereas the latter proceeds out of an inferior court by precept only. An arrest lies only against the body of a man, whereas an attachment lies often against the goods only, and sometimes against the body and goods. It differs from a distress in that an attachment does not extend to lands, while a distress cannot touch the body. Foreign attachment answers to what in Scotland is termed arrestment, by means of which a creditor may obtain the security of the goods or other personal property of his debtor in the hands of a third person for the purpose of enforcing the appearance of the debtor to answer to an action, and afterwards, upon his continued default of obtaining the property absolutely in satisfaction of the demand. Research Attachment
Buddhism is the religious system founded by Buddha, one of the most prominent doctrines of which is that Nirvana, or an absolute release from existence, is the chief good. According to it pain is inseparable from existence, and consequently pain can cease only through Nirvana; and in order to attain Nirvana our desires and passions must be suppressed, the most extreme self-renunciation practised, and we must, as far as possible, forget our own personality.
In order to attain Nirvana eight conditions must be kept or practised. The first is in Buddhistic language right view; the second is right judgment; the third is right language; the fourth is right purpose; the fifth is right profession; the sixth is right application; the seventh is right memory; the eighth is right meditation. The five fundamental precepts of the Buddhist moral code are: not to kill, not to steal, not to commit adultery, not to lie, and not to give way to drunkenness. To these there are added five others of less importance, and binding more particularly on the religious class, such as to abstain from repasts taken out of season, from theatrical representations, etc. There are six fundamental virtues to be practised by all men alike, vizcharity, purity, patience, courage, contemplation, and knowledge. These are the virtues that are said to 'conduct a man to the other shore'. The devotee who strictly practises them has not yet attained Nirvana, but is on the road to it.
The Buddhist virtue of charity is universal in its application, extending to all creatures, and demanding sometimes the greatest self-denial and sacrifice. There is a legend that the Buddha in one of his stages of existence (for he had passed through innumerable transmigrations before becoming 'the enlightened') gave himself up to be devoured by a famishing lioness which was unable to suckle her young ones. There are other virtues, less important, indeed, than the six cardinal ones, but still binding on believers. Thus not only is lying forbidden, but evil-speaking, coarseness of language, and even vain and frivolous talk, must be avoided. Buddhist metaphysics are comprised in three theories - the theory of transmigration (borrowed from Brahmanism), the theory of the mutual connection of causes, and the theory of Nirvana. The first requires no explanation. According to the second, life is the result of twelve conditions, which are by turns causes and effects. Thus there would be no death were it not for birth; it is therefore the effect of which birth is the cause. Again, there would be no birth were there not a continuation of existence. Existence has for its cause our attachment to things, which again has its origin in desire; and so on through sensation, contact, the organs of sensation and the heart, name and form, ideas, etc, up to ignorance. This ignorance, however, is not ordinary ignorance, but the fundamental error which causes us to attribute permanence and reality to things. This, then, is the primary origin of existence and all its attendant evils.
Nirvana or extinction is eternal salvation from the evils of existence, and the end which every Buddhist is supposed to seek. Sakya-muni did not leave his doctrines in writing; he declared them orally, and they were carefully treasured up by his disciples, and written down after his death. The determination of the canon of the Buddhist scriptures as we now possess them was the work of three successive councils, and was finished two centuries at least before Christ. From Buddhism involving a protest against caste distinctions it was eagerly adopted by the Dasyus or non-Aryan inhabitants of Hindustan. It was pure, moral, and humane in its origin, but it came subsequently to be mixed up with idolatrous worship of its founder and other deities. Although now long banished from Hindustan by the persecutions of the Brahmans, Buddhism prevails in Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand, Nepal, Tibet, Mongolia, China, Indonesia, and Japan, and its adherents are said to comprise about a third of the human race. Research Buddhism
Dempsey and Makepeace was a British cops and robbers television series created in 1985 about an imaginary elite criminal investigation unit of the British police to which is assigned an unorthodox American policeman (played by Michael Brandon) on attachment from the USA and who is paired up with an attractive, aristocratic British undercover female policewoman (played by Glynis Barber). Research Dempsey and Makepeace
In law, distress is the taking of a personal chattel of a wrong-doer or a tenant, in order to obtain satisfaction for the wrong done, or for rent or service due. If the party whose goods are seized disputes the injury, service, duty, or rent, on account of which the distress is taken, he may replevy the things taken, giving bonds to return them or pay damage in case the party making the distress shows that the wrong has been done, or the service or rent is due. Another kind of distress is that of attachment, to compel a party to appear before a court when summoned. The distresses most frequently made are on account of rent and taxes and damage-feasance. Research Distress
Farriery is the art of horse-shoeing. It consists in the attachment of a rim of iron, by means of nails, to the lower border of the horse's hoof, in order to prevent its excessive wear. Research Farriery
The albatross is a long winged, powerful oceanic bird. There are some thirteen species of albatross, all related to the petrels, and constituting the family Diomedeidae. Albatross have large heads, stout bodies and extremely long narrow wings. The bill is straight and strong, the upper mandible hookedat the point and the lower mandible truncated. The bill is covered with distinctive horny plates. The feet are webbed with three toes on each foot. The upper part of the body is of a greyish brown colour, the belly white. The albatross is the largest known sea bird, with a wing span of some 533 cm. Albatross often accompany ships for days on end without ever landing, and are regarded with feelings of attachment and traditionally superstitious awe by sailors - it being considered bad luck to kill an albatross. Research Albatross
A bat is a nocturnal, wing-handed, flying mammals, having the forelimb peculiarly modified so as to serve for flight, and constituting the order Cheiroptera (Chiroptera). Bats are sub-divided into two groups; Megachiroptera (the megabats) and Microchiroptera (the microbats).
Bats are structurally not very different from typical mammals except for the extension of their finger bones to carry flight membranes, and their backward bending knees, though their conquest of the air is a marked difference. Echolocation in bats is associated with large ears and in some cases facial skin growths, and the ability to catch flying insects at night. This food source is seasonal, which, combined with their small size, has favoured the evolution of hibernation. Daily torpor, in which the body temperature drops to the ambient temperature is common among temperate bats, and is another energy-saving adaptation necessitated by small bodies engaged in such a high energy activity as flying. Short migrations to roosts of appropriate temperatures occur throughout the year. Mating begins in the autumn, and continues at intervals throughout hibernation. Sperm is stored and ovulation and fertilisation take place in the spring with a typical litter of just one young occurring. The parent shows a strong degree of attachment for her offspring, and when they are captured, will follow them, and even submit to captivity herself rather than forsake her charge.
Bats are common in temperate and warm regions. but are most numerous and largest in the tropics. All European bats are small, and have a mouse-like skin. The body of the largest British species, Vespertilio noctula, is less than that of a mouse, but its wings stretch about 38 cm. During the day it remains in caverns, in the crevices of ruins, hollow trees, and such-like lurking-places, and flits out at evening in search of food, which consists of insects.
Several species of the same genus are common in North America, Many bats are remarkable for having a singular nasal cutaneous appendage, bearing in some cases, a fancied resemblance to a horse-shoe. Two of these horse-shoebats occur in Britain. Bats may be conveniently divided into two sections - the insectivorous or carnivorous, comprising all European and most African and American species; and the fruit-eating, belonging to tropical Asia and Australia, with several African forms. An Australian fruit-eating bat (Pteropus edulis) commonly known as the kalong or flying-fox, is the largest of all the bats; it does much mischief in orchards. At least two species of South American bats are known to suck the blood of other mammals, and thence are called 'vampire-bats' (though this name has also been given to a species not guilty of this habit). The best known is the Desmodus Rufus of Brazil, Chilli, etc. Research Bat
Catherine Parr was the sixth and last wife of Henry VIII of England. She was born in 1512 and died in 1548. Before marrying Hnery VIII in 1543 she had been married twice before. Her attachment to the reformed religion brought her into some danger, but from this she was released by the king's death in 1547. After the death of the king she espoused the Lord-admiral Lord Thomas Seymour, uncle to Edward VI but the union was an unhappy one, and she died while giving birth in 1548. She was the author of a volume of Prayers or Meditations, and a tract and letters published posthumously. Research Catherine Parr
Demetrius, or Dmitri was the name of a series of impostors who usurped supreme authority in Russia, and led to some of its remarkable revolutions during the 16th and 17th centuries.
Ivan Vasilievitch, who had put his eldest son to death with his own hand, left the throne in 1584 to another son, Fedor, a feeble prince, whom Boris Godunoff entirely supplanted in his authority. Ivan had left another son, Dmitri, by a second marriage; and Boris, fearing that he might one day prove a formidable obstacle to his ambitious projects, made away with him, but no one exactly knew how.
Grishka, or Gregory Otrepieff, a native of Jaroslav and a novice in a monastery, impersonated Dmitri, went to Lithuania, where he embraced the Roman Catholic religion and married the daughter of Mniszek, palatine or waiwod of Sandomir. In 1604 he entered Russia at the head of a body of Poles, was joined by a number of Russians and Cossacks, and defeated an army sent against him. On the death of Boris he was placed on the throne, but he offended the Russians by his attachment to Polish manners and customs, and still more by a want of respect to the Greek religion and its patriarch, and he was assassinated after reigning about eleven months. A rumour of his being still alive having spread, another impostor quickly appeared to personify him, and the Poles espousing the cause of the second false Dmitri, made it triumphant, until be was assassinated in 1610 by the Tartars whom he had selected as his body-guards. A state of anarchy ensued and continued for nearly half a century, during which a number of other false Dmitri appeared in different quarters. Research Demetrius
Henry VIII (nicknamed Copper Nose) was King of England from 1509 to 1547. He was born in 1491 and died in 1547. Henry VIII was the son of Henry VII and was 17 when he became king in 1509. He was soon prevailed upon to join in a league formed against Louis XII of France. Some campaigns in France followed, but the success of the English at the Battle of the Spurs in 1513 was succeeded by no adequate result, the taking of Tournay being the only fruit of this expensive expedition.
Meantime, more splendid success attended the English arms at home, James IV of Scotland being completely defeated and slain at Flodden Field in 1513. Henry, however, granted peace to the Queen of Scotland, his sister, and established an influence which rendered his kingdom long secure on that side. Finding himself deluded by his allies, he soon after made peace with France, retaining Tournay and receiving a large sum of money.
From l515 until 1529 the government was practically in the hands of Wolsey, no parliament being summoned in that period until 1523. After the election of Charles V to the German Empire, both Charles and the French king, Francis I, sought the alliance of England. A friendly meeting took place between Henry and Francis at the Field of the Cloth of Gold in 1520, but the interest of Charlea preponderated, and Henry declared war against France, though with no important results.
Now came the determination of the king to divorce his wife Catharine of Aragon, who was older than he, had borne him no male heir - though a girl - and had, moreover, been in the first place the wife of his elder brother. The last of these points was the alleged ground for seeking divorce, though Henry was probably influenced largely by his attachment to Anne Boleyn, one of the queen's maids of honour. Wolsey, for his own ends, had at first been active in promoting the divorce, but drew back and procrastinated when it became apparent that Anne Boleyn would be Catharine's successor. This delay cost Wolsey his power and the papacy its authority in England. Henry in disgust eagerly caught at the advice of Thomas Cranmer, afterwards Archbishop of Canterbury, to refer the case to the universities, from which he soon got the decision that he desired.
In 1533 his marriage with Catharine was declared null and an anticipatory private marriage with Anne Boleyn declared lawful; and as these decisions were not recognized by the pope, two acts of parliament were obtained, one in 1534 setting aside the authority of the chief pontiff in England, the other in 1535 declaring Henry the supreme head of the church. But although Henry discarded the authority of the Roman Church, he adhered to its theological tenets; and while, on the one hand, he executed Bishop Fisher and Sir Thomas More for refusing the oath of supremacy, he brought many of the reformers to the stake. Finding that the monks and friars in England were the most direct advocates of the papal authority, and a constant source of disaffection, he suppressed the monasteries by act of parliament, and thereby inflicted an incurable wound upon the Catholic religion in England.
The fall of Anne Boleyn was, however, unfavourable for a time to the reformers. Henry then married Jane Seymour, and the birth of Prince Edward in 1537 fulfilled his wish for a male heir. The death of the queen was followed in 1540 by Henry's marriage with Anne of Cleves, the negotiations of which were conducted by Cromwell. The king's dislike to his wife, which resulted in another divorce, became extended to the minister who had proposed the union, and Cromwell's disgrace and death soon followed.
A marriage with Catharine Howard in 1541 proved no happier, and in 1542 she was executed on a charge of infidelity. In 1543 he married his sixth wife, Catharine Parr, a lady secretly inclined to the Reformation, who survived the king. In the meantime Scotland and France had renewed their alliance, and England became again involved in war. James V ravaged the borders, but was defeated at Solway Moss in 1542, and in 1544 Boulogne was captured, Henry having again allied himself with Charles V. Charles, however, soon withdrew, and Henry maintained the war alone until 1546. Disease now so much aggravated the natural violence of Henry that his oldest friends fell victims to his tyranny. The Duke of Norfolk was committed to the Tower, and his son the Earl of Surrey was executed. Control of Wales was strengthened by the Acts of Union of 1536 and 1542 which united England and Wales administratively and legally, and gave Wales representation in Parliament. Henry died in 1547, leaving his sickly 10-year-old son to inherit the throne as Edward VI.
Henry's nickname of copper nose came about after, having spent the money left him by his miserly father, he minted inferior silver coins. The silver soon wore away from the prominent parts of the coins, notably the king's nose, revealing the base copper below, and the nickname was born. Research Henry VIII
The Probert Encyclopaedia was designed, edited and programed by
Matt and Leela Probert
Abbreviations
Research Attachment
