The book of Mormon is an alleged translation (done in 1830) by Joseph Smith, of a volume found buried in a stone box on Cumorah, a hill near Manchester, New York state. Composed of gold plates eight inches by seven inches, fastened by three gold rings, written in 'reformed Egyptian', interpreted by the aid of two crystals (Urim and Thummim) set like spectacles in a silver bow, it summarised American history from Babel to 420 AD. Its authors were the prophet Mormon and his son Moroni. A travesty of the Old Testament, and of similar size, intended as the bible of the West, it has been identified by unbelievers with an unprinted romance, 'The Found Manuscript' by Solomon Spaulding who died in 1816, copied and communicated to Joseph Smith by Sidney Rigdon. Research Book of Mormon
A cross is one straight body laid at any angle across another, or a symbol of similar shape. Among the ancients a piece of wood fastened across a tree or upright post formed a cross, on which were executed criminals of the worst class. It had, therefore, a place analogous to that of the modern gallows as an instrument of infamous punishment until it acquired honour from the crucifixion of Christ. The custom of making the sign of the cross in memory of Christ may be traced to the 3rd century. Constantine had crosses erected in public places, palaces, and churches, and adopted it, according to a legend, as the device for a banner (labarum) in consequence of a dream representing it as the symbol of victory. In his time also Christians painted it at the entrance of their houses as a sign of their faith, and subsequently the churches were for the most part built in the form of a cross. It did not, however, become an object of adoration until after the alleged discovery of the true cross by the EmpressHelena in 326. Its adoption as the Christian symbol may be held to connect itself with the fact that it was used emblematically long before the Christian era, in the same way that traces of belief in a trinity, in a war in heaven, in a paradise, a flood, a Babel, an immaculate conception, and remission by the shedding of blood, are to be found diffused amongst widely sundered peoples. The general meaning attached to the sign appears to have been that of life and regeneration.
Since its adoption by Christianity it has undergone many modifications of shape, and has been employed in a variety of ways for ornaments, badges, heraldic bearings, etc. After the introduction of the cross into the military ensigns of the Crusaders its use in heraldry became frequent, and its form was varied more than that of any other heraldic ordinary, some of the varieties being of great beauty.
The name cross is also given to various architectural structures, of which a cross in stone was a prominent feature; thus we have market crosses, preaching crosses, monumental crosses, etc.
Freemasonry is a term applied to the organization of a society calling themselves free and accepted masons, and all the mysteries therewith connected. This society, if we can reckon as one a number of societies, many of which are unconnected with each other, though they have the same origin and a great similarity in their constitution, extends over almost all parts of the globe, and is consequently of the greatest service to travellers who are members of the craft. According to its own peculiar language it. is founded on the practice of social and moral virtue. It claims the character of charity in the most extended sense; and brotherly love, relief, and truth are inculcated in it. Fable and imagination have traced back the origin of freemasonry to the Roman Empire, to the Pharaohs, the temple of Solomon, the Tower of Babel, and even to the building of Noah's ark. In reality it took its rise in the middle ages along with other incorporated crafts. Skilled masons moved from place to place to assist in building the magnificentsacred structures - cathedrals, abbeys, etc - which had their origin in these times, and it was essential for them to have some signs by which, on coming to a strange place, they could be recognized as real craftsmen and not impostors.
Freemasonry in its modified and more modern form dates only from the 17th century. The modern ritual is said to have been partly borrowed from the Rosicrucians and knights templars, and partly devised by Elias Ashmole, the founder of the Ashmolean Museum. Freemasonry, thus modified, soon began to spread over the world. In 1725 it was introduced into France by Lord Berwentwater; and in 1733 the first American lodge was established. The United Grand Lodge of England recognizes only two species of Freemasonry - the Craft and the Royal Arch; Scotch, Irish, American, and Continental lodges acknowledge higher degrees; but these, with the exception of the Mark Degree and not universal. In ordinary freemasonry there are three grades - those of apprentice, fellow-craft and master-mason - each of which has its peculiar initiation ceremonies; the last of these grades, however, is necessary to the attainment of the full rights and privileges of brotherhood.
At the end of the 20th century the Freemasonry were linked national organisations open to men and women over 21, united by the possession of a common code of morals and beliefs, and of certain traditional 'secrets'. Apart from requiring a belief in the ' Great Architect of the Universe' and acceptance of its moral code, English Freemasons maintain strict impartiality in politics and religion.
Freemasonry assumed a political and anticlerical character; it has been condemned by the papacy, and in certain countries was suppressed by the State. Both in Britain and the USA the freemasons maintain hospitals and institutions for their sick or aged members, and schools for their orphans. Research Freemasonry
Babylon was the capital of the ancient Chaldean empire in Asia, and is now a ruined city in Iraq. Babylon was located on both sides of the Euphrates, and formed one of the largest and most splendid cities of the ancient world.
Babylon was a royal city sixteen hundred years before the Christian era; but the old city was almost entirely destroyed in 683 BC. A new city was built by Nebuchadnezzar nearly a century later. This was in the form of a square, each side 15 miles long, with walls of such immense height and thickness as to constitute one of the wonders of the world. It contained splendid edifices, large gardens and pleasure-grounds, especially the 'hanging-gardens,' a sort of lofty terraced structure supporting earth enough for trees to grow, and the celebrated tower of Babel or temple of Belus, rising by stages to the height of 625 feet. After the city was taken by Cyrus in 538 BC, and Babylonia made a Persian province, it began to decline, and had suffered severely by the time of Alexander the Great. He intended to restore it, but was prevented by his death, which took place here in 323 BC, from which time its decay was rapid. Interesting discoveries have been made on its site in comparatively recent times, more especially of numerous and valuable inscriptions in the cuneiform or arrow-head character. The modern town of Hillah is believed to represent the ancient city, and the plain here for milesround is studded with vast mounds of earth and brick and imposing ruins. The greatest mound is Birs Nimrud, about 6 miles from Hillah. It rises nearly 200 feet, is crowned by a ruined tower, and is commonly believed to be the remains of the ancient temple of Belus. Another great ruin-mound, called Mujellibeh, has also been assigned as its site.
Babylonia was an old Asiatic empire occupying the region watered by the lower course of the Euphrates and the Tigris, and by their combined stream. The inhabitants, though usually designated Babylonians, were sometimes called Chaldeans, and it is thought that the latter name represents a superior caste who at a comparatively late period gained influence in the country. At the earliest period of which we have record the whole valley of the Tigris and Euphrates was inhabited by tribes of Turanian or Tatar origin. Along with these, however, there early existed an intrusive Semitic element, which gradually increased in number until at the time the Babylonians and Assyrians (the latter being a kindred people) became known to the western historians they were essentially Semitic peoples. The great city Babylon, or Babel, was the capital of Babylonia, which was called by the Hebrews Shinar. The country was, as it still is, exceedingly fertile, and must have anciently supported a dense population. The chief cities, besides Babylon, were Ur, Calneh, Erech, and Sippara. Babylonia and Assyria were often spoken of together as Assyria.
The discovery and interpretation of the cuneiform inscriptions have enabled the history of Babylonia to be carried back to about 4000 BC, at which period the inhabitants had attained a considerable degree of civilization, and the country was ruled by a number of kings or princes each in his own city. About 2700 BC Babylonia came under the rule of a single monarch. Latterly it had serious wars with neighbouring nations, and for several hundred years previous to 2000 BC Babylonia was subject to the neighbouring Elam. It then regained its independence, and for a thousand years it was the foremost state of Western Asia in power, as well as in science, art, and civilization. The rise of the Assyrian empire brought about the decline of Babylonia, which latterly was under Assyrian domination, though with intervals of independence, Tiglath-Pileser II. of Assyria (745-727) made himself master of Babylonia; but the conquest of the country had to be repeated by his successor, Sargon, who expelled the Babylonian king, Merodach-Baladan, and all but finally subdued the country, the complete subjugation being effected by Sennacherib. After some sixty years the second or later Babylonian empirearose under Nabopolassar, who, joining the Modes against the Assyrians, freed Babylon from the superiority of the latter power, 625 BC The new empire was at its height of power and glory under Nabopolassar's son, Nebuchadnezzar (604-561), who subjected Jerusalem, Tyre, Phoenicia, and even Egypt, and carried his dominion to the shores of the Mediterranean and northwards to the Armenianmountains. The capital, Babylon, was rebuilt by him, and then formed one of the greatest and most magnificent cities the world has ever seen. He was succeeded by his son Evil-Merodach, but the dynasty soon came to an end, the last king being Nabonetus or Nabonadius, who came to the throne in 555 BC, and made his son, Belshazzar, co-ruler with him. Babylon was taken by Cyrus the Persian monarch in 538, and
e second Babylonian empire came to an end, Babylonia being incorporated in the Persian empire. Its subsequent history was similar to that of Assyria.
Babylonian culture was similar to that of Assyria, but with some differences. In Babylonia stone was not to be had, and consequently brick was the almost universal building material. Sculpture was thus less developed in Babylonia than in Assyria, and painting more. Babylonian art had also more of a religious character than that of Assyria, and the chief edifices found in ruins are temples. Weaving and pottery were carried to high perfection. Astronomy was cultivated from the earliest times. The Babylonians had a number of deities, but latterly the chief or national deity was Bel Merodach, originally the Sun-god. Education was well attended to, and there were schools and libraries in connection with the temples. On the inscribed tablets that have been discovered are writings relating to religion, law, magic, poems, etc. Research Babylonia
Abbreviations
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