Bath is the immersion of the body in water, or an apparatus for this purpose. The use of the bath as an institution apart from occasional immersion in rivers or the sea, is, as might be anticipated, an exceedingly old custom. Homer mentions the bath as one of the first refreshments offered to a guest; thus, when Ulysses enters the palace of Circe, a bath is prepared for him, and he is anointed after it with costly perfumes. No representation, however, of a bath as we understand it is given upon the Greek vases, bathers being represented either simply washing at an elevated basin, or having water poured over them from above. In later times, rooms, both public and private, were built expressly for bathing, the public baths of the Greeks being mostly connected with the gymnasia. Apparently, by an inversion of the later practice, it was customary in the Homeric epoch to take first a cold and then a hot bath; but the Lacedemonians substituted the hot-air sudorific bath, as less enervating than warm water, and in Athens at the time of Demosthenes and Socrates the warm bath was considered by the more rigorous as an effeminate custom.
The fullest details we have with respect to the bathing of the ancients apply to its luxurious development under the Romans. Their bathing establishments consisted of four main sections: the undressing room, with an adjoining chamber in which the bathers were anointed; a cold room with provision for a cold bath; a room heated moderately to serve as a preparation for the highest and lowest temperatures; and the sweating-room, at one extremity of which was a vapour-bath and at the other an ordinary hot bath. After going through the entire course both the Greeks and Romans made use of strigils or scrapers, either of horn or metal, to remove perspiration, oil, and impurities from the skin. Connected with the bath were walks, covered race-grounds, tennis-courts, and gardens, the whole, both in the external and internal decorations, being frequently on a palatial scale. The group of the Laocoon and the Parnese Hercules were both found in the ruins of Roman baths.
With respect to modern baths, that commonly in use in Russia consists of a single hall, built of wood, in the midst of which is a powerful metal oven, covered with heated stones, and surrounded with broad benches, on which the bathers take their places. Cold water is then poured upon the heated stones, and a thick, hot steam rises, which causes the sweat to issue from the whole body. The bather is then gently whipped with wet birch rods, rubbed with soap, and washed with lukewarm and cold water; of the latter, some pailfuls are poured over his head; or else he leaps, immediately after this sweating-bath, into a river or pond, or rolls in the snow.
The Turks, by their religion, are obliged to make repeated ablutions daily, and for this purpose there is, in every city, a public bath connected with a mosque. A favourite bath among them, however, is a modification of the hot-air sudorific-bath of the ancients introduced under the name of Turkish Bath into other than Islamic countries. A regular accompaniment of this bath, when properly given, is the operation known as 'kneading,' or massage, generally performed at the close of the sweating process, after the final rubbing of the bather with soap, and consisting in a systematic pressing and squeezing of the whole body, stretching the limbs, and manipulating all the joints as well as the fleshy and muscular parts.
Public baths were common in Europe during the late 19th century, but the first English public baths and wash-houses of the kind common in all cities during the late 19th century were established in Liverpool and near the London docks in 1844. In 1846 an act was passed for their encouragement, and a Baths and Wash-houses Act of 1878 authorized the establishment of cheap swimming-baths.
The principal natural warm baths in England are at Bath in Somersetshire (the hottest), and Brixton and Matlock in Derbyshire. The temperature of the Bath springs ranges from 109 to 117 degrees, while that of the Buxton and Matlockwaters scarcely exceeds 82 degrees. The baths of Harrogate, which are strongly impregnated with sulphuretted hydrogen gas, are also of great repute for the cure of obstinate cutaneous diseases, indurations of the glands, etc. The most celebrated natural hot baths in Europe are those of Aix-la-Chapelle, and the various Baden in Germany; Toeplitz, in Bohemia; Bagnieres, Bareges, and Dax, in the south of France; and Spa, in Belgium. Besides the various kinds of water-bath with or without medication or natural mineral ingredients, there are also milk, oil, wine, earth, sand, mud, and electric baths, smoke-baths and gas-baths; but these are as a rule only indulged after specific prescription.
The practice of bathing as a method of cure in cases of disease falls under the head of hydrotherapathy; in the 19th century it was advised that even when bathing was employed simply for pleasure or purification due regard should be paid to the physiological condition of the bather. During the Victorian era in Britain writers were concerned about the potential dangers of bathing, and one warned:
'in many cases cold bathing should be avoided altogether, especially by those who have any tendency to spitting of blood or consumption, by gouty people, or by those who have any latent visceral disease or apoplectic tendency. Wherever the bath is followed by shivering instead of by a healthy reactionary glow, it is undesirable; and a cold bath in the morning after any debauchery or excess in eating or drinking on the previous evening is exceedingly imprudent. Delicate persons and children ought not to bathe in the sea before ten or eleven o'clock in the morning, and in no case should bathing be indulged after a long fast. In cold streams and rivers additional precautions should be taken, the cold plunge, when heated or fatigued, being frequently attended with fatal results. Even warm baths are not wholly free from danger; apoplexy and death having been known to follow a hot bath when entered with a full stomach. As a rule the temperature should not exceed 105 degrees, and they should not be too long continued. Frequent indulgence in them has an enervating effect, though the majority of people need as yet no renewal of Hadrian's prohibitive legislation in this matter.'
The eminent author, George Black, in 1892, while generally encouraging bathing, and describing bathing as 'likely to be of excellent use and efficacy both in the prevention and cure of disease.' Also went on to warn:
'Baths should never be taken immediately after a meal, nor when the body is very much exhausted by fatigue or excitement of any kind, nor during nor just before menstruation; and they should be sparingly and guardedly used by pregnant women.' Research Bath
Essays and Reviews was a volume written by six Church of England clergymen and one layman: Dr. Frederick Temple (in 1896-1902 Archbishop of Canterbury), Dr. Rowland Williams, Baden Powell, H B Wilson, Mark Pattison, Professor Jowett, and Mr. C W Goodwin, and published in March, 1860. Its alleged heterodoxy caused much excitement, and called forth numerous replies, condemnation by convocation in 1864, and the prosecution of two of the writers by the ecclesiastical courts. Research Essays and Reviews
Gaming, or gambling is the practice of indulging in games involving some element of chance or hazard with a view to pecuniary gain.
In many countries such games, and the collateral practices of betting on events, taking shares in lotteries, etc, are legally prohibited or restricted as frequently associated with fraud and as themselves demoralizing. At other times governments, tempted by the prospect of gain, have openly encouraged gambling by licensing gaming- houses, or instituting lotteries under their own authority. In France public gaming-tables were suppressed from the 1st of January, 1838, but lotteries were still sometimes carried on.
Previous to the formation of the German Empire gambling was encouraged in both of the ways referred to in several of the principalities of Germany. Baden-Baden, in the Grand-duchy of Baden, and Homburg, in Hesse-Homburg, were the two most famous resorts in Europe of the frequenters of gaming-tables. After the formation of the empire gaming was suppressed in these places on the 31st of December, 1872, and after that time the Italian principality of Monaco became the last public resort of this species of gambling, quickly developing into a world famous gaming center even after a relaxation of gaming rules in other European countries during the 20th century.
In Great Britain gaming has been the subject of numerous enactments. Henry VIII made proclamation against certain games, including dice, cards, and bowls, and prohibited the keeping of any common house for unlawful games under penalties of 40 shillings per day for keeping the house, and 6s. 8d per time for playing in it.
By an act of Charles II in 1663 any person fraudulently winning money by gaming was to forfeit treble the amount, and any person losing more than 100 pounds at cards, etc, on credit at one sitting was not bound to pay, and the winner forfeited treble the amount.
Under Anne all notes, bills, bonds, etc, given for money won by gaming were decreed void, and any person paying a loss of more than 10 pounds might recover it within three months as a common debt; or if the loser did not sue, any other person might do so. In the reign of William IV such notes were declared void between the parties, but not in the hands of purchasers or endorsers.
By acts of George II keepers of public-houses were punishable for permitting gaming, and the games of faro, hazard, roulette, and all other games with dice, except backgammon, are prohibited under penalties. This law, with amendments is still in force in 2009 with cribbage, dominoes and other games of pure skill allowed to be played in public-houses for moderate stakes.
An act of 1845, while repealing some of the previous acts and exempting games of mere skill, including billiards and dominoes, inflicted the penalty of 100 pounds (afterwards increased to a maximum of 500 pounds) on any person keeping a gaming-house, with the alternative of six months' imprisonment. Cards and other games could of course be played in private houses, but not in gaming-houses, or in such a way as to constitute a nuisance. Persons playing or gaming in public places could be punished as rogues and vagabonds. Penalties were inflicted for keeping billiard
or bagatelle tables without a license. Lotteries and raffles were illegal (but art union lotteries were excepted). Persons fraudulently winning money by gaming were deemed guilty of obtaining it by false pretences. No suit-at-law could be brought against a loser for money won at play or to recover money so lost, or to recover a deposit from a stakeholder; but this did not apply to prizes at any lawful sport. Later acts provide that betting-houses should be considered gaming-houses. Any person found in a gaming-house who gave a false name or address was liable to a fine of fifty pounds. Research Gaming
The Girl Guides Association is an association founded by Robert and (his sister) Agnes Baden Powell in 1910 to encourage the physical, mental, and spiritual development of girls. The three classes of members are Brownie Guides (for girls aged between 7 and 10), Guides (aged 10 to 15), and Ranger Guides (aged 14 to 20). Its counterpart for boys is the Scout Association. Research Girl Guides Association
John Churchill (First Duke of Marlborough) was an English soldier. He was born in 1650 at Ashe and died in 1722. He served under Turenne in 1672 and distinguished himself at Nimeguen and Maestricht. In 1678 he married Sarah Jennings, a lady of the bedchamber of the PrincessAnne. John Churchill showed great skill and resource in serving the royal army at Sedgemoor in 1685. In 1688 he went over to the Prince of Orange, and was made Earl of Marlborough by William III.
In the war in Ireland, from 1689 to 1691, his capture of the two ports of Cork and Kinsale severed the communications of France. He made his mark also in the war in the Low Countries. But he was disliked by William and his Dutch favourites. This and a strong feeling of sympathy with his old master caused Marlborough to enter into plots with King James at Saint-Germain. Following the affair of Brest he was arrested, kept in the Tower in 1692 and was for a time disgraced. But when a rupture with France appeared impending, the king took him to Holland to negotiate for the Grand Alliance.
After the death of William in 1702, he was made, largely through the influence of his wife with the new queen Anne, captain-general of the British army. John Churchill also commanded the forces of the Dutch republic. The career of John Churchill in the field was one of peculiar splendour. In 1702 to 1703 he seized the line of the Meuse. In the following year he arranged with Eugene the operations that saved the empire. After a march of extraordinary skill he struck down the veteran French and Bavarian armies, under Tallard and Marsion, on the field of Blenheim in 1704, piercing the enemy's centre by finely designed attacks. He had Villars, an adversary worthy of him, in his front in 1705; and he fell back in retreat before the marshal in Lorraine, having been left in the lurch by a colleague, Louis of Baden. Then he turned the celebrated lines constructed by the French to cover the east of Belgium, and in 1706 won the great battle of Ramillies.
John Churchill and Eugene triumphed again at Oudenarde, on the Scheldt, another battle won by a single stroke of tactics; and having captured the great fortress of Lille, they made preparations for the invasion of France. Villars, sent to defend his country, was just defeated on the terrible day of Malplaquet in 1709, for the allies only won a Pyrrhic victory. their losses, especially those of the Dutch, were enormous; the league against France was severely shaken. In 1710 the marshal covered the northern borders of France by a system of skilfully constructed lines. John Churchill, whose influence in England had been greatly weakened, became cautious, and would not attack; and though he turned the lines by a fine manoeuvre in 1711, he gained only insignificant success. In 1712, on the accession to power of the Tories he was deprived of all his commands. Research Duke of Marlborough
Elector was the title of certain princes of the old German Empire who had the right of electing the emperors. In the reign of Conrad I, king of Germany from 912 to 918, the dukes and counts became gradually independent of the sovereign and assumed the right of choosing future monarchs. In the 13th century the number of these electors was seven - the Archbishops of Mainz, Cologne, and Treves, the King of Bohemia, the CountPalatine, the Duke of Saxony, and the Markgrave of Brandenburg. In 1648 an eighth electorate was created to make room for Bavaria, and Hanover was added as a ninth in 1692. The votes of the Palatinate and of Bavaria were merged in one in 1777. In 1802 the two ecclesiastical electors of Cologne and Treves were set aside, and Baden, Wurtemberg, Hesse - Cassel, and Salzburg declared electorates so that there were ten electors in 1806 when the old German empre was dissolved. Research Elector
Franz Sigel was a German-born American general. He was born in 1824 and died after 1897. He was prominent in the insurrection in Baden in 1848 and 1849. He went to the United States in 1852. He ardently upheld the National cause during the American Civil War. He captured Camp Jackson in Missouri, fought the battle of Carthage, and was second in command at Wilson's Creek in 1861. He commanded the right wing at Pea Ridge in 1862, and led a corps at Cedar Creek and the second battle of Bull Run. He was defeated by General Breckinridge at New Market in 1864. Research Franz Sigel
The Hamilton family are a family long connected with Scotland, though probably of English origin, the name being evidently territorial. The first person of the name in Scotland of whom we have reliable information was Walter Fitz-Gilbert of Hamilton, who, in 1296, swore fealty to Edward I of England for lands in Lanarkshire, and held BothwellCastle for the English at the time of the Battle of Bannockburn. For his early surrender of this fortress King Robert Bruce gave him important grants of land. He continued faithful to King David Bruce, and had a command at Halidon Hill under the Steward of Scotland.
In 1445 the family was ennobled in the person of Sir James Hamilton of Cadyow, who was created Lord Hamilton of Cadyow. At first he adhered to the Douglases against the crown; but, deserting them opportunely, he was rewarded by large grants of their forfeited lands, and at a later period by the hand of the Princess Mary, eldest daughter of King James II and widow of Thomas Boyd, earl of Arran. He died in 1479.
His only son was James, second Lord Hamilton and first Earl of Arran, who died in 1529, and was succeeded by his son James, whose nearness to the throne, and his great possessions and following, made him a person of such mark and consequence that Henry II of France gave him a grant of the duchy of Chatelherault; and his eldest son was proposed at one time as the husband of Elizabeth I of England, and at another as that of Mary of Scotland. This son having become insane, the second son, LordJohn Hamilton, created Marquis of Hamilton in 1599, succeeded in 1575 to the family estates.
Dying in 1604 he was succeeded by his son James, who was created Earl of Cambridge in 1619, and died in 1625. His son James, the third marquis, one of the ablest and most distinguished of the family, created Duke of Hamilton in 1643 by Charles I was taken prisoner by the parliamentary forces soon after the battle of Preston, and beheaded in March, 1649.
A successor was created Duke of Brandon in 1711, and was killed in a duel with Lord Mohun in 1712.
James George, seventhduke, on the death of Archibald, duke of Douglas, in 1761, became also the male representative and chief of the red or Angus branch of the house of Douglas, with the titles of Marquis of Douglas and Earl of Angus. He died in 1769, and was succeeded by his brother, Douglas, eighth Duke of Hamilton, who, in 1799, was succeeded by his uncle Lord Archibald Hamilton. He died in 1819, and was succeeded by his eldest son Alexander, who, dying in 1852, was succeeded by his only son William Alexander Anthony Archibald. In 1843 he married the PrincessMarie of Baden, and he died at Paris July 15, 1863.
The ennobled offshoots of the Hamiltons are numerous and distinguished. Among these are the Dukes of Abercorn, the Earls of Selkirk, Orkney, and Haddington, and the Viscounts Boyne. Research Hamilton
Hohenstaufen was a German princely family, several members of which filled the imperial throne. The founder of the family was Frederick, lord of Hohenstaufen, a castle in the Suabian Alps, who for his services to the Emperor Henry IV received the duchy of Suabia, and the hand of his daughter Agnes. His son Conrad was elected emperor in 1138. After the death of Conrad in 1152 the confidence which was felt in the Hohenstaufen family caused the choice to fall on his nephew, Frederick III of Suabia, who was followed by Henry VI in 1190, who added by his wife the kingdom of Sicily and Naples to the hereditary dominions of the family; and he again by Otto IV in 1197 and Frederick II, all belonging to the same house. After the death of Frederick II his son Conrad was acknowledged as his successor, with the title of Conrad IV, by most of the states of the empire; but Innocent IV laid him under an interdict, declared him to be deprived of all his lands, and persecuted him with relentless hatred until his death in 1254. The possessions of the family ultimately fell to Bavaria, Baden, and Wurtemberg. Research Hohenstaufen
Johann Heinrich Dannecker was a German sculptor. He was born in 1758 and died in 1841. Early signs of talent recommended him to the notice of Charles, duke of Wurtemberg. As a student at the Karlschule he greatly distinguished himself, was appointed courtsculptor, and visited Paris and Rome. In 1790 he returned to Wurtemberg, and became professor of the fine arts at Stuttgart. His best works are his statue of Christ and his Ariadne Seated on a Panther. His portrait busts are excellent; those of Schiller, Lavater, the Duchess Stephanie of Baden, deserve particular mention. Research Johann Dannecker
The Probert Encyclopaedia was designed, edited and programed by
Matt and Leela Probert
Abbreviations
Research Bath
