The As was a Roman weight of 12 ounces, answering to the libra or pound, and equal to 237.5 grains avoirdupois, or 327-1873 grammes, French measure. In the most ancient times of Rome the copper or bronze coin which was called as actually weighed an as, or a pound, but in 264 BC it was reduced to 2 oz., in 217 to 1 oz., and in 191 to 0.5 oz.
A beaker was, during the middle-ages and until the 20th century, a large-mouthed, handleless drinking vessel. During the 20th century the term came to be applied to a metal, or usually plastic, drinking vessel, again without handles - thus differentiating it from the glasstumbler. In archaeology, the term beaker may be applied to a type of handless pottery drinking vessel characteristic of the peoples of early bronze age western Europe. Research Beaker
In Scottish archaeology, a cairn is a mound of stones raised over a prehistoric grave, like an English barrow. Ancient cairns are of two types - chambered from the stone age and unchambered from the bronze age. Chambered cairns are again found in two forms; long cairns and horned cairns. Research Cairn
Celts (named from the Late Latin celtis, a chisel), is the name given to certain prehistoric weapons or other implements of stone or bronze which have been found over nearly the whole surface of the earth. Stone celts are found in the form of hatchets, adzes, chisels, etc. In size they vary, some being found only about one inch in length, and others approaching two feet; but the most common length is from six to eight inches, and the breadth is usually about half or one third of the length. The materials of which they are made are flint, chert, clay-slate, porphyry, various kinds of greenstone and of metamorphic rocks, and, in short, any very hard and durable stone.
Bronze celts belong to a later period than stone ones, and are not so numerous. Some stone celts, however, have been found along with bronze celts in such a manner as to show that stone celts were still used when the method of working bronze had been discovered. Bronze celts are not found so large as the largest stone celts, the largest bronzecelt being under one foot; but the average size of a bronzecelt is about the same as that of a stone, namely about six inches. Research Celts
The ancient Greeks and Romans called the coffers they used for the remains of the dead a cist. The Greek and Roman cists were cylindrical and made of wickerwork. The cicts used in the rites of ceres were made of bronze. Research Cist
Contorniati were ancient medals or medallions in bronze, having a curved furrow (contorno) on each side. They were supposed to have been struck in the days of Constantine the Great and his successors, and to have formed tickets of admission to the public games of the circus of Rome and of Constantinople. Research Contorniati
A foundry is a place where metal is melted and cast into the forms required in construction or decoration. Iron, brass, bronze, and type founding are special forms of the art. Research Foundry
Jade carving is the process by which the surface of jade stone is embellished through abrasion. The earliest known carved jades were made in China during the New Stone Age, or Neolithic period. Neolithic jades were usually fashioned as blades, although it is unclear whether they served a utilitarian or ceremonial function.
Excavations conducted at sites settled during the Shang dynasty have yielded a number of carved jades in a variety of forms. Certain shapes predominate, such as the round disk (pi), the ax (kuei), and a cylindrical tube (tsung). These objects probably served a ritual function, either as symbols of rank or as grave furnishings. The most beautiful examples of Shang jade carving, however, are small sculptures and plaques. The discovery, in 1975, of an undisturbed tomb from the Anyang era of the Shang dynasty has yielded the richest group of jade carvings to date. The excavation revealed plaques depicting dragons and various birds, along with near-miniature sculptures of human figures, mythical creatures, and recognisable animals, including an elephant.
The achievements of the Shang jade carvers were adopted and ultimately surpassed by artists of the Chou dynasty. Surface decoration became increasingly sophisticated, with open- work featuring birds and dragons, as well as tiny, individually carved curls. The development of the iron drill is probably responsible for the technical advancements seen in the carvings of this period. Elaborate jade carving continued in popularity during the Han dynasty; in addition, a most notable jade artefact was the so-called funerary suit. Various excavations have yielded corpses encased in a jade form made of thousands of rectangular pieces of jade, sewn together with gold thread, and fitted to the body. Other small jades, previously objects for burial, were now fashioned for the uses of the living. Toilet boxes, drinking vessels, and delightful adornments for the scholar's desk have been preserved from the Han period.
The dating of jade carvings from after the Han dynasty through the Ch'ing dynasty has been highly problematic, as the archaeological evidence is often incomplete. Throughout this period, however, small decorative forms of jade, often depicting animals, flowers, or children, continued in popularity. T'ang and Sung carvers favoured small figures. Drinking and desk vessels, and jadejewellery as well, were widely produced in the Yuan and Ming epochs. During the Ch'ing period, particularly in the 18th century, large jade carvings attained great favour with the emperors and royal officials. Forms were often taken from ancient bronze vessels, reflecting the continuing interest in early art. Landscapes, often paralleling those found on carved bamboo or in paintings, were carefully transcribed onto the surface of enormous jade slabs. Much of this intricacy is still found in Chinese jade work today; traditional design motifs and carving styles also have been retained. China's continuous interest in jade carving was never found in other Asian nations.
The Indians practised a degree of jade work, most notably the Islamic Mughals, who favoured ceremonial weapons with highly decorative jade blades. The most important centre of jade carving outside the Orient was pre-Columbian Mexico and Central America under the Olmec, Aztec, and Mayan rulers. Splendid ceremonial objects-axes, knives, masks, and large animal figures-were produced; the objects are sophisticated in style and highly advanced in technique. Research Jade Carving
The Probert Encyclopaedia was designed, edited and programed by
Matt and Leela Probert
Abbreviations
Research Beaker
