The blind are those who want, or are deficient in, the sense of sight. Blindness may vary in degree from the slightest impairment of vision to total loss of sight; it may also be temporary or permanent. It is caused by defect, disease, or injury to the eye, to the optic nerve, or to that part of the brain connected with it. Old age is sometimes accompanied with blindness, occasioned by the drying up of the humours of the eye, or by the opacity of the cornea, the crystalline lens, etc. The blind are often distinguished for a remarkable mental activity, and a wonderful development of the intellectual powers. Their touch and hearing, particularly, become very acute.
As early as 1260 an asylum for the blind (L'hospice des Quinze-Vingts) was founded in Paris by St Louis for the relief of the Crusaders who lost their sight in Egypt and Syria; but the first institution for the instruction of the blind was the idea of Valentin Hauy, brother of the celebrated mineralogist. In 1784 he opened an institution in which the blind were instructed not only in appropriate mechanical employments, as spinning, knitting, making ropes or fringes, and working in paste-board, but also in music, in reading, writing, ciphering, geography, and the sciences. For instruction in reading he procured raised letters of metal; for writing he used particular writing-cases, in which a frame, with wires to separate the lines, could be fastened upon the paper; for ciphering there were movable figures of metal, and ciphering-boards in which the figures could be fixed; for teaching geographymaps were prepared upon which mountains, rivers, cities, and the boundaries of countries were indicated to the sense of touch in various ways, etc.
Similar institutions were soon afterwards founded in Amsterdam, Berlin, Brussels, Copenhagen, Dresden, Edinburgh, Liverpool, London, Vienna, and in many towns of the United States. By 1900 there were comparatively few large cities that did not possess a school or institution of some kind for the blind.
At the start of the 20th century the attitude towards the blind was rather patronising, and one source may be quoted as saying 'the occupations in which the blind are found capable of engaging are such as the making of baskets and other kinds of wicker-work, brushmaking, rope and twine making, the making of mats and matting, knitting, netting, fancy work of various kinds, cutting fire-wood, the sewing of sacks and bags; the carving of articles in wood, etc'. However, it was also recognised that more skilled tasks could also be performed by blind persons, and the same source notes that 'Piano-tuning is also successfully carried on by some, and the cleaning of clocks and watches has even been occasionally practised by them'.
Around 1900 an impetus was given, in Britain, to the higher education of the blind by the formation of the British and Foreign Blind Association, the establishment of a college for the Blind Sons of Gentlemen at Worcester, and the Royal Normal College and Academy of Music for the Blind, Upper Norwood.
Various systems were devised for the purpose of teaching the blind to read, some of which consisted in the use of the ordinary Roman alphabet, with more or less modification, and some of which employ types quite arbitrary in form. In all systems the characters rise above the surface of the paper so as to be felt by the fingers. The type adopted by Hauy was the script or italic form of the Roman letter. This was introduced into England by Sir C. Lowther, who printed the Gospel of St. Matthew in 1832 with type obtained from Paris. Before this Gall of Edinburgh made use of an embossed alphabet based on the ordinary Roman small letters, in which all curves were replaced by angular lines, and in 1834 he published the Gospel of St John in this character. Subsequently he introduced various improvements, and in particular the letters were produced with serrated surfaces, thus giving greater distinctness. Alston of Glasgow, Howe of Boston, and others also used the Roman form; but the former (who was the first to print the whole Bible, in 1840) adopted the Roman capitals, while the latter adopted the small letters, printing in this type the Bible and many other books. Of alphabets deviating entirely or nearly so from the Roman letter, one consists of a stenographic shorthand invented by Lucas of Bristol; another was a phonetic shorthand devised by Frere of London. In Dr. Moon's alphabet some of the characters are Roman, others are based on or suggested by the Roman characters. The Braille system, widely adopted by the laye 20th century, is one in which the letters are formed by a combination of dots. Dr. Moon's system from its simplicity and the size of its characters is in very general use in books for the blind. There are also systems by which the blind are enabled to write, and the writing may be either in relief so as to be read by the blind, or in characters that may be read by those who see. Research Blind
Byzantine art is the symbolic system which was developed by the early Greek or Byzantine artists out of the Christian symbolism. Byzantine Art arose in South-eastern Europe after Constantine the Great had made Byzantium the capital of the Roman Empire in 330 AD and ornamented that city, which was called after him, with all the treasures of Grecian art.
One of the chief influences in Byzantine art was Christianity, and to a certain extent Byzantine art may be recognized as the endeavour to give expression to the new elements which Christianity had brought into the life of men. The tendency towards Oriental luxuriance and splendour of ornament now quite supplanted the simplicity of ancient taste. Richness of material and decoration was the aim of the artist rather than purity of conception. Yet the classical ideals of art, and in particular the traditions of technical processes and methods carried to Byzantium by the artists of the Western Empire, held their ground long enough, and produced work pure and powerful enough, to kindle the new artistic life which began in Italy with Cimabue and Giotto.
With regard to sculpture the statues no longer displayed the freedom and dignity of ancient art. The true proportion of parts, the correctness of the outlines, and in general
the severe beauty of the naked figure, or of simple drapery in Greek art, were neglected for extravagant costume and ornamentation and petty details. Yet in the best period of Byzantine art, from the 6th to the 11th century, there is considerable spiritual dignity in the general conception of the figures. But sculpture was of second-rate importance at Byzantium, the taste of those times inclining more to mosaic work with the costliness and brilliant colours of its stones.
The first germ of a Christian style of art was developed in the Byzantine pictures. The artists, who appear to have seldom employed the living model, and had nothing real and material before them, but were obliged to find, in their own imaginations, conceptions of the external appearance of sacred persons, such as the mother of Christ or the apostles, could give but feeble renderings of their ideas. As they cared but little for a faithful imitation of nature, but were
satisfied with repeating what was once acknowledged as successful, it is not strange that certain forms, approved by the taste of the time, should be made, by convention, and without regard to truth and beauty, general models of the human figure, and be transmitted as such to succeeding times. In this way the artists in the later periods did not even aim at accuracy of representation, but were contented with stiff general outlines, lavishing their labour on ornamental parts.
Byzantine architecture may be said to have assumed its distinctive features in the church of St Sophia built by Justinian in the 6th century, and still existing as the chief mosque in Constantinople. It is more especially the style associated with the Greek Church as distinguished from the Roman.
The leading forms of the Byzantine style are the round arch, the circle, and in particular the dome. The last is the most conspicuous and characteristic object in Byzantine buildings, and the free and full employment of it was arrived at when by the use of pendentives the architects were enabled to place it on a square apartment instead of a circular or polygonal. In this style of building incrustation, the incrustation of brick with more precious materials, was largely in use. It depended much on colour and surface ornament for its effect, and with this intent mosaics wrought on grounds of gold or of positive colour are profusely introduced, while coloured marbles. and stones of various kinds are greatly made use of. The capitals are of peculiar and original design, the most characteristic being square and tapering downwards, and they are very varied in their decorations.
Byzantine architecture may be divided into an older and a newer (or Neo-Byzantine) style. The most distinctive feature of the latter ia that the dome is raised on a perpendicular circular or polygonal piece of masonry (technically the drum) containing windows for lighting the interior, while in the older style the light was admitted by openings in the dome itself. The Cathedral of Athens is an example of the Neo-Byzantine style.
Capitals are the large letters used in writing and printing, most commonly as the initial letters of certain words. As among the ancient Greeks and Romans, so also in the early part of the middle ages, all books were written without any distinction in the kind of letters, large letters (capitals) being the only ones used; but gradually the practice became common of beginning a book, subsequently, also, the chief divisions and sections of a book, with a large capital letter, usually illuminated and otherwise richly ornamented. Research Capitals
A nation is a body of people, organised into a single state. One of the most characteristic of the ideas of the Age of the Renaissance was that of the Nation and its sovereign independence - an idea still very active in our own days. The Middle Ages had been dominated by the Catholic ideal of world unity. The great institutions of those ages were international - for example, the Feudal System, and above all the Church and the Papacy. Latin, too, was an international language; and though the various peoples had their own languages, the continual use of Latin in both Church and State affairs helped educated men to regard themselves as members of one society, the society of Christendom. Above all, these peoples - English, French, Spanish, Italian, German - were all members of one Church. All belonged in some measure to the Christendom of which the heads were the Pope and the Emperor. Then, gradually, from the early days of the Renaissance, the newer idea of the 'Nation' took root, and this in time changed the unity of 'Christendom' into the disunion of 'Europe'.
Modern Europe is dominated by national feeling and is divided into independent national states; and these have no longer even the common bond of one Church. Europe has lost as well as gained by the disappearance of medieval Christendom. She has gained, because the old feudal divisions in most countries meant internal disunion, civil warfare, and baronial tyranny. But Europe has also lost, because the old ideal of a united Christendom has disappeared in the jealous rivalries of warring nations. From time to time attempts have been made to check these dangerous rivalries. But the problem of international peace and co-operation - of a 'society of nations' - is one which mankind is still trying to solve in a satisfactory manner. The nations which took the lead in Europe in the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries were those that first achieved national unity, and the chief of these were France, Spain, and England. Italy, which had given so much to the world in art and letters, did not share in this political change. Great men lived in Italy - in Rome, Florence, Venice, Naples, and Milan - but all these cities were the capitals of small states. In short, Italy was not a nation; hence she became from 1494 the prey of powerful neighbours. As with Italy, so with Germany.
The Holy Roman Empire was an empire only in name; in practice, Germany contained three or four hundred separate States. Both Germany and Italy retained, until even the nineteenth century, their internal divisions and discords. France, Spain, and England had achieved national unity in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, whereas Germany and Italy had to wait another three centuries - and some of our problems to-day are due to the fact that they are still comparatively new nations. The means by which national unity was brought about in France, Spain, and England was the monarchy. It was their kings who saved and made these countries - saved them from feudal anarchy and made them into nations. It was monarchs like Henry VII and Henry VIII of England, Louis XI and Francis I of France, and Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain who united their countries under a strong rule, and led them to a great destiny. A Holy Roman Emperor (Maximilian) contrasted the new monarchs with himself as follows: 'The Emperor is indeed a king of kings, for no one feels bound to obey him; and the King of Spain is a king of men, for, though resisted, he is still obeyed; but the King of France is a king of beasts, for him none dare gainsay.' Research Nation
Uncial is an ancient style of writing in capital letters. Derived from an expression of St Jerome's, the term uncial denotes the rounder and less regular characters resulting from the adaptation of stone-incised capitals to vellum writing. Research Uncial
Giovanni Giacomo de Seingalt Casanova was a Venetian adventurer. He was born in 1725 and died in 1798. He travelled Europe's capitals frequenting the most aristocratic society and living a generally rakish life. He is known by his Memoirs as an adventurer who acted a prominent part in all situations, amongst all classes of society, and in all the large cities of Europe, by turns acting the part of diplomatist, preacher, abbot, lawyer, and charlatan. Among others with whom he came in contact were Rousseau, Voltaire, Suvaroff, Frederick the Great, and Catherine II. His celebrated Memoirs are a lively picture of the manners of his times, but probably not very veracious. Research Casanova
George Ticknor was an American literary historian. He was born in 1791 at Boston, Massachusetts and died in 1871. Educated at Dartmouth, in 1815 he went to Europe where he visited most of the capitals and studied at Gottingen. From 1819 until 1835 he was professor of Belles-Lettres and of French and Spanish at Harvard. The following three years he spent in Europe, and in 1849 he published his magnum opus, The History of Spanish Literature. Further visits to Europe followed, and in 1864 he brought out his Life of Prescott. His later years were devoted to the Boston Public Library which he helped to establish in 1852, and was one of the trustees from 1852 until 1866, and was president of the Boston Library in 1965. On his death, Thomas Tickell bequeathed his collection of books to the Boston Public Library. Research George Ticknor
SC is an abbreviation for StatisticsCanada
SC is an abbreviation for Seychelles
SC is an abbreviation for Secondary Channel
SC is an abbreviation for Sectional Centre
SC is an abbreviation for South Carolina
SC is an abbreviation for Subcommittee
SC is an abbreviation for Segment Control
SC is an abbreviation for Serial Command
SC is an abbreviation for ShoeCove
SC is an abbreviation for Small Capitals
SC is an abbreviation for Spacecraft
SC is an abbreviation for Stored Command
SC is an abbreviation for Supercalendered
SC is an abbreviation for Supreme Court
SC is an abbreviation for System Concept
SC is an abbreviation for School Certificate
SC is an abbreviation for Sad Case
SC is an abbreviation for Same Case
SC is an abbreviation for Separate Cover
SC is an abbreviation for Shaped Charge
SC is an abbreviation for Single Circuit
SC is an abbreviation for Single Contact
SC is an abbreviation for Single Crochet
SC is an abbreviation for Sized and Calendered
SC is an abbreviation for Slow Cool
SC is an abbreviation for Small Capital letters
SC is an abbreviation for Smooth Contour
SC is an abbreviation for Statistical Control
SC is an abbreviation for Super-Cycle
SC is an abbreviation for Superimposed Current
SC is an abbreviation for Site Contractor
SC is an abbreviation for Spinal Cord
SC is an abbreviation for Systolic Click
SC is an abbreviation for Sacra Congregatio (SacredCongregation)
SC is an abbreviation for Sacramento City
SC is an abbreviation for Salem College
SC is an abbreviation for SandiaCorporation
SC is an abbreviation for Sanitary Corps
SC is an abbreviation for Scripps College
SC is an abbreviation for Seamen's Center
SC is an abbreviation for Security Council
SC is an abbreviation for Selwyn College
SC is an abbreviation for Service Club
SC is an abbreviation for Service Command
SC is an abbreviation for Shasta College
SC is an abbreviation for Shaw College
SC is an abbreviation for Shell Transport
SC is an abbreviation for Shelton College
SC is an abbreviation for Shenandoah College
SC is an abbreviation for Shepherd College
SC is an abbreviation for Sheridan College
SC is an abbreviation for Shimer College
SC is an abbreviation for Ship's Cook
SC is an abbreviation for Shorter College
SC is an abbreviation for Siena College
SC is an abbreviation for Sierra College
SC is an abbreviation for Signal Corps
SC is an abbreviation for Simmons College
SC is an abbreviation for Simpson College
SC is an abbreviation for Sinclair College
SC is an abbreviation for Sister of Charity
SC is an abbreviation for Skidmore College
SC is an abbreviation for Smith College
SC is an abbreviation for Somerville College
SC is an abbreviation for South Carolinian
SC is an abbreviation for Southern California
SC is an abbreviation for Southern Californian
SC is an abbreviation for Southern Conference
SC is an abbreviation for Southwestern College
SC is an abbreviation for Special Constable
SC is an abbreviation for Spelman College
SC is an abbreviation for Springfield College
SC is an abbreviation for Staff College
Sc is an abbreviation for Staff Corps
SC is an abbreviation for Stephens College
SC is an abbreviation for Sterling College
SC is an abbreviation for Stockton College
SC is an abbreviation for Stonehill College
SC is an abbreviation for Stratford College
SC is an abbreviation for Strike Command
SC is an abbreviation for Submarine Chaser
SC is an abbreviation for Sullins College
SC is an abbreviation for Summary Court
SC is an abbreviation for Sumter & Choctaw
SC is an abbreviation for Suomi College
SC is an abbreviation for Supply Corps
SC is an abbreviation for Support Command
SC is an abbreviation for Surgical Corporation
SC is an abbreviation for Swarthmore College
SC is an abbreviation for Systems Command Research SC
Angkor is a city in Cambodia. It was the site of several capitals of the Khmerempire and is renowned for the temples which the Khmers built between the 9th and 12th centuries for their god-kings to live in after death. At Angkor Thom was the grandiose Bayon (temple) of Jayavarman VII; on pinnacle after pinnacle the king's features live on in the faces of the Buddha. Under this Buddhist king, Angkor Thom reached its zenith. The city, with its 13 km of moated walls and position on the shores of the vast inland lake of Tonle Sap, lay at the heart of an elaborate irrigation system which was partially laid out and controlled by the Khmer kings. For centuries the city and the great temples, with their bas-reliefs recording sacred myths and the daily lives and bloody battles of the Khmers, were lost to the jungle. After their rediscovery in the 19th century they were much restored. Research Angkor
Rhode island is the smallest state in the USA. Rhode Island was one of the original thirteen States. Its dual origin is indicated by its official title, 'The State of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations', and by its two capitals, Providence and Newport. Roger Williams, the patron saint of the State, was banished from the Massachusetts Bay Colony because of his attacks on the theocratic government of that colony. He advocated complete separation of church and State, and entiretoleration for all creeds. He founded Providence in 1636. Two years later the Anti-nomians or followers of Anne Hutchinson founded Portsmouth, and in 1639 Newport was settled.
On March the 14th, 1644, a charter was granted by which these settlements were united in one colony with a popular government. This charter was revoked, and in 1663 a new one was granted, which continued to be the fundamental law until 1842. This gave the entire power of government to the people.
Rhode Island applied for admission to the New England Confederation, but her application was denied. In 1742, the western boundary line was finally settled with Connecticut; but not until 1862 was the eastern boundary with Massachusetts determined.
Brown University was founded in 1764. The devotion of the colony to the American cause was shown in 1772, by the affair of the Gaspe. Rhode Island was not represented in the convention of 1787, and did not ratify the American Constitution until May the 29th, 1790. This delay was due to the desire of the agricultural classes to retain the power to levy import taxes and to make paper money a legal tender.
An unjust apportionment of representatives and a property qualification for voting led to Dorr's rebellion in 1842, when a new constitution was adopted which widened the suffrage, but the property restriction was not entirely removed until the adoption of the Bournamendment which retained the property qualification for election to city councils only. Research Rhode Island
The Probert Encyclopaedia was designed, edited and programed by
Matt and Leela Probert
Abbreviations
Research Blind
