Catacombs ( derived from the Greek kata, meaning down, and kumbos, meaning a hollow or recess) are caves or subterranean places for the burial of the dead, the bodies being placed in graves or recesses hollowed out in the sides of the cave. Caves of this kind were common amongst the Phoenicians, Greeks, Persians, and many oriental nations.
In Sicily and Asia Minor numerous excavations have been discovered containing sepulchres, and the catacombs near Naples are remarkably extensive. Those of Rome, however, are the most important. The catacumbae is said to have been originally applied to the district near Rome which contains the chapel of St Sebastian, in the vaults of which, according to tradition, the body of St Peter was first deposited; but (besides its general application) it is now applied in a special way to all the extensive subterranean burial-places in the neighbourhood of Rome, which extend underneath the town itself as well as the neighbouring country, and are said to contain not less than 6,000,000 tombs. They consist of long narrow galleries usually about 2.4 metres high and 1.5 metres wide, which branch off in all directions, forming a perfect maze of corridors. Different stories of galleries lie one below the other. Vertical shafts run up to the outer air, thus introducing light and air, though in small quantity.
The graves or loculi lie longwise in the galleries. They are closed laterally by a slab, on which there is occasionally a brief inscription or a symbol, such as a dove, an anchor, or a palm-branch, and sometimes both. The earliest that can be dated with any certainty belongs to the year 111 AD. It is now regarded as certain that in times of persecution the early Christians frequently took refuge in the catacombs, in order to celebrate there in secret the ceremonies of their religion; but it is not less certain that the catacombs served also as ordinary places of burial to the early Christians, and were for the most part excavated by the Christians themselves.
In early times rich Christians constructed underground burying-places for themselves and their brethren, which they held as private property under the protection of the law. But in course of time, partly by their coming under the control of the church and partly by accidents of proprietorship, these private burying-grounds were connected with each other, and became the property, not of particular individuals, but of the Christian community. In the 3rd century AD there were already several such common burying-places belonging to the Christian congregations, and their number went on increasing until the time of Constantine, when the catacombs ceased to be used as burying-places.
From the time of Constantine down to the 8th century they were used only as places of devotion and worship. But their use as formal places of worship can only have been occasional, for the limited dimensions even of the largest rooms, and the extreme narrowness of the passages, must have made it impossible for any large number to take efficient part in the services at one time. But though the idea of the catacombs as regular places of worship may be carried too far, there is no doubt, from the episcopal chairs, altars, basins, etc, found within them, and from the subjects of the mosaics and carvings on the walls, that the rites of the church, and particularly the eucharist and the sacrament of baptism, were often celebrated there.
They could never have cerved as dwelling-places for any length of time to the Christians, residence in most of them for more than a short time being very dangerous to the health.
During the siege of Rome by the Lombards in the 8th century the catacombs were in part destroyed, and soon became entirely inaccessible, so that they were forgotten, and only the careful and laborious investigations of archaeologists, amongst whom De Rossi (Roma Sotterranea) and Parker (The Catacombs) may be mentioned, have thrown anything like a complete light on the origin and history of the catacombs.
There are extensive catacombs at Paris, consisting of old quarries from which has been obtained much of the material for the building of the city. In them are accumulated bones removed from cemeteries now built over. Research Catacomb
The Negro Plot was an alleged terrorist even that occurred on March the 18th, 1741 in New York. A fire occurred in the chapel and barracks at Fort George on the Battery in New York. It was generally believed to be accidental, but charges were set afloat that it arose from a plot by the negroes to burn the town. Eight other fires of a mysterious nature within a month strengthened this belief. Mary Burton, a servant of one John Hughson, furnished testimony implicating a number of sailors and negroes. Twenty whites and over 160 slaves were seized and imprisoned. Finally Mary Burton's accusations inculpated persons of such character that danger from that direction checked the fury. It was charged that the Spanish were inciting plots among the negroes through Roman Catholic priests. Four whites were hanged, eighteen negroes hanged and thirteen burned at the stake. Research Negro Plot
Papal Curia in its stricter sense is the authorities which administer the Papal primacy; in its common wider use it describes all the authorities and functionaries forming the Papal court. The different branches of the curia having respect to church government are the sacredcongregation of cardinals, the secretariat of state, and the vicariate of Rome, the machinery employed being supplied by the chancery, the dataria, and the camera apostolica. As 'supreme judge' in Christendom the pope acts through special congregations and delegated judges, or through the regular tribunals of the rota and segnatura, and the penitenziaria. The institution of the Papal chapel and the household of the pope (Famiglia Pontificia) are also classed as departments of the curia; and finally the functionaries maintaining the external relations of the pope - legates, nuncios, apostolic delegates, etc. Formerly the curia included besides these the mechanism and functions of secular administration. Research Papal Curia
University College is a College of Oxford University, England. It ranks first on the official list of colleges. A very doubtful tradition ascribes its origin to Alfred the Great. In 1872 the millennium of its establishment was celebrated, and there is reason to believe that a society of some kind was in existence befiore 1249, when a certain William of Durham left some money for the purpose of founding a college. Its head is the master. The buildings, which front the High Street, date partly from the 17th century, including the chapel hall and old library, and partly from the 19th. Research University College Oxford
Uppingham School is an English public school. It was founded in 1584 by Robert Johnson, and was for nearly 300 years a country grammar school. In 1853 Edward Thring was appointed headmaster, and under him it became a great public school. New buildings were erected, and it has now museum, laboratories, swimming bath, etc. The chapel dates from 1891. Divided into upper, middle, and lower divisions, it has accommodation for 450 boys. Research Uppingham School
Agnes Bernauer was the daughter of a poor Augsburg citizen, whom DukeAlbert of Bavaria, only son of the reigning prince, secretly married. He conducted her to his own castle of Vohburg; but his father wishing to marry him to Anne, daughter of the Duke of Brunswick, he was compelled to proclaim his marriage with Agnes, giving her for residence the castle of Straubing on the Danube. The incensedDuke of Bavaria, however, caused her to be seized in her castle during the absence of his son, accused her of sorcery, and had her drowned in the Danube in 1435. Albert in revenge took arms against his father, but the Emperor Sigismund finally reconciled them. The DukeErnest raised a chapel to the memory of Agnes, and Albert married the Princess of Brunswick. Research Agnes Bernauer
Archibald Alison was a Scottish theologian and writer on aesthetics. He was born in 1757 in Edinburgh and died in 1839. He studied at Glasgow and at Balliol College, Oxford, entered the English Church, and finally in 1800 settled as the minister of an Episcopal chapel at Edinburgh. He published two volumes of sermons, and a work entitled Essays on the Nature and Principles of Taste, published in 1790, in which he maintains that all the beauty of material objects depends upon the associations connected with them.
Sir Archibald Alison was an English lawyer and writer of history. He was born in 1792 at Shropshire and died in 1867. The son of Arbibald Alison, the theologian, hee was educated at the University of Edinburgh, and in 1814 was admitted to the Scottish bar. He spent the next eight years in continental travel. On his return he was appointed advocate-depute, which post he held until 1830. In 1832 he published Principles of the Criminal Law of Scotland, and in 1833 The Practice of the Criminal Law. He was appointed sheriff of Lanarkshire in 1834, and retained this post until his death. He was made a baronet in 1852. His chief work - The History of Europe, from 1789 to 1815 - was first issued in ten volumes between 1833 and 1842, the narrative being subsequently brought down to 1852, the beginning of the second French Empire. This work displays industry and research, and is generally accurate, but not very readable. It has been translated into French, German, Arabic, Hindustani, etc. Among Sir Archibald's other productions are Principles of Population; Free-trade and Protection ; England in 1815 and 1845; Life of the Duke of Marlborough, etc. Research Archibald Alison
Sir Arthur Seymour Sullivan was an English composer. He was born in 1842 at London and died in 1900. He entered the Chapel Royal choir in 1854 and studied music at the Royal Academy of Music and at Leipzig between 1857 and 1861. He is best known as one half of the opera producing couple 'Gilbert and Sullivan', whose first joint work was the light opera 'Thespis' produced in 1871, and last work was 'Grand Duke' produced in 1896. Research Arthur Sullivan
Charles Haddon Spurgeon was a British preacher. He was born in 1834 at Kelvedon, Essex and died in 1892. The son of an independent minister he worked for a time as a schoolmaster at Newmarket. Having joined the Baptist denomination, in 1852 he became minister of a Baptist chapel at Waterbeach, where he proved popular and was invited to a church at Southwark. There his preaching attracted large crowds and eventually the Metropolitant Tabernacle was built for him in 1861. There he continued to preach until his death. Research Charles Spurgeon
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Abbreviations
Research Catacomb
