The Gulf Stream is a well-known oceanic current, so called because it issues from the Gulf of Mexico. It owes its origin to the fact that the westward moving waters of the tropical portion of the Atlantic Ocean, encountering the eastward projection of South America, become divided into two currents, one setting southwards along the Brazilian coast, and the other northward past the mouths of the Amazon and Orinoco, into the Caribbean Sea. It then enters the Gulf of Mexico, and thence emerges through the Channel of Florida as the Gulf Stream. Its course is next to the north and eastwards, in a direction parallel to the coast of the United States, past Cape Hatteras, along the southern edge of the 'great banks' of Nantucket and Newfoundland (between the meridians of 48 and 60 degrees west), after which its course as a distinct current is less obvious.
In the earlier part of its course, especially when rounding the extremity of Florida, the Gulf Stream forms a well-defined current, distinguished by its high temperature and its deep blue or indigo colour. On account of the descent of the Polar or Baffin Bay current along the coast in a direction opposite to that of the Gulf Stream, the water on its inland side is colder than that to the eastward of it. The difference of temperature between the Gulf Stream and this cold current sometimes amounts to 20 or even 30 degrees Fahrenheit
The velocity of the Gulf Stream varies with its course. Within the Florida Channel it attains a mean of 65 miles per day, this sinks to 56 miles off Charleston, becomes 36 miles to 46 off Nautucket, and 28 miles to the south of the Newfoundland Banks; 300 miles to the eastward of Newfoundland its movement is hardly perceptible. At the bottom of the Florida Channel the observed temperature is 34 degrees that of the surface from 80 to 84 degrees Fahrenheit. Research Gulf Stream
A newspaper is a publication reporting and commenting upon news. The first periodicals were published by the Romans., the first newspapers proper were produced in Venice by the government, published monthly during the war of 1563 against the Turks.
The first genuine newspaper established in the United States was the Boston News Letter founded at Boston in 1704 by Postmaster John Campbell, and continued until 1776. Previous to this there had been
issued at Boston three publications of one number each. Of these the first, called a Newspaper Extraordinary consisted wholly of extracts from a letter of Dr. Increase Mather, who was then in London endeavouring to obtain a new charter for Massachusetts. This letter was published by Samuel Green in 1689.
On September the 25th, 1690, appeared the first and only number of
Publick Occurrences Foreign and Domestic issued by Benjamin Harris. The authorities promptly seized and suppressed the paper as 'a pamphlet published contrary to law and containing reflections of a very high nature'. In 1697 B Green and J Allen republished a news letter, bearing no title, which had been issued in London the same year. It was printed on a single page, .and contained small news items from the continent. After the Boston News Letter there appeared in 1719 the Boston Gazette Andrew Bradford issuing the American Weekly Mercury at Philadelphia the same year. James Franklin established the New England Courant at Boston two years later. This was suppressed for its attacks upon the Government and clergy, but was revived by Benjamin Franklin. WilliamBradford began the Gazette at New York in 1725, and John Peter Zenger the New York Weekly Journal in 1733, in the cause of the people against the Colonial Government. Zenger's paper may be regarded as a prototype of the modern news journal. Newspapers were founded in the other American colonies in the following order: In Maryland, at Annapolis, in 1727; in South Carolina, at Charleston, in 1731; in Rhode Island, at Newport, in 1731; in Virginia, at Williamsburg, in 1736; in North Carolina, at New Berne, in 1755; in Connecticut, at New Haven, in 1755; in New Hampshire, at Portsmouth, in 1756; in Georgia, at Savannah, in 1763; in Vermont, at Westminster, in 1781.
Between 1704 and 1775 seventy-eight different newspapers had been printed with varied success in the American colonies. Of these, thirty-nine were in actual process of publication at the outbreak of the American War of Independence. The papers most influential in advancing the revolutionary cause were the Boston Gazette and the Massachusetts Spy, On the British occupation of Boston, New York and Philadelphia, most of the Whig journals were suspended. It has been estimated that the thirty-nine newspapers of 1775 circulated about 1,300,000 copies annually.
After the Federal Constitution was adopted in America the newspapers fell largely into the hands of English immigrants, men of versatility and talent. Violent partisan controversies arose. The most influential papers of this period were the Columbian Centinel, published at Boston during forty years, commencing in 1784, by Benjamin Russell; the New York Minerva, established at New York in 1793 by Noah Webster; the New York Evening Post, established as the central organ of the Federalists in 1801; the Philadelphia Aurora, founded by Benjamin Franklin Bache in 1790, and afterward edited with vindictive partisanship by William Duane, an Englishman; the Philadelphia National Gazette, established in 1791 by Philip Freneau; and the National Intelligencer, established at Washington by Samuel H Smith in 1800.
The first American penny paper was the New York Sun, established in 1833 by Benjamin Day. The first American Sunday paper was the Sunday Courier, appearing in New York in 1825, with but little success. The chief period of the political influence of editors in the United States was that beginning in 1830 and ending after the American Civil War. Before that date the editor was often of little account, but from 1830 to 1870 the paper was often known chiefly as the organ of the individual editor's opinions. Research Newspaper
Alfred Howe Terry was an American general. He was born in 1827 and died in 1890. He was one of the most successful of the civilian officers in the War of the Rebellion. Before the struggle he had been a lawyer, paying some attention to militia matters. During the first year he commanded a regiment at the capture of Port Royal and Fort Pulaski. Being made a brigadier-general, he served in 1862-1863 in the operations near Charleston. He commanded a corps in the Army of the James, and fought at Chester Station, Drewry's Bluff and the siege of Petersburg. He was entrusted with the military part of the second attempt on Fort Fisher, in January, 1865, co-operating with the admiral. The successful storming of the fort on January the 14th made Alfred Howe Terry a brigadier-general in the regular army. He captured Wilmington, and was a departmental commander after the war. General Alfred Howe Terry became major-general in 1886, and retired in 1888. Research Alfred Howe Terry
Augustine Prevost was a British soldier. He was born in 1725 and died in 1786. He was captain of the Royal Americans under Wolfe at Quebec. He was brevetted major-general for the capture of the fort at Sunbury, Georgia, in 1778. He defeated General John Ashe at Brier Creek in 1779, and made an unsuccessful attack upon Charleston. He successfully defended Savannah against the Americans in 1779. Research Augustine Prevost
Benjamin Lincoln was an American general. He was born in 1733 at Hingham, Massachusetts and died in 1810. He was a comrade of George Washington in his earlier campaigns, and commanded the expedition which cleared Boston harbour of British vessels in 1776. He unsuccessfully besiegedSavannah in 1779 and surrendered Charleston to the British in 1787. In 1787 he suppressed Shay's rebellion and from 1781 to 1784 was Secretary of War. Research Benjamin Lincoln
Black Beard (real name Edward Teach) was an English pirate. He was born at Bristol and died in 1718. He made frequent ravages along the New England coast and West Indies from his 40-gun warship, Queen Anne's Revenge. He was gladly received by the inhabitants of Charleston in the matter of trade. Black Beard's headquarters were in North Carolina. From thence he preyed upon the Spanish possessions in the south and traded as far north as Philadelphia, where prominent citizens were in league with him and with Evans, another pirate. He was finally driven away by Governor Johnson, of North Carolina, and was shot by Robert Maynard in 1718. Research Black Beard
Caleb Cushing was an American politician. He was born in 1800 and died in 1879. Educated at Harvard he rose to eminence at the Massachusetts bar. He was a Representative from Massachusetts in Congress in 1835 until 1843, having been a Whig and, from Tyler's time, a Democrat. He was a US Commissioner to China, a brigadier-general during the Mexican War, and an unsuccessful candidate for Governor of Massachusetts. From 1853until 1857 he was a member of Pierce's Cabinet as Attorney-General. In 1860 he presided over the democratic National Convention which met at Charleston. His high reputation as a lawyer led to his appointment as US counsel before the Geneva Tribunal of 1872, and to his nomination by Grant as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, though he failed in confirmation of the office and was sent as US minister to Spain in 1874 where he remained until 1877. Research Caleb Cushing
Charles Lee was an English soldier. He was born in 1731 and died in 1782. He served in the army at Edward Braddock's defeat and through the French and Indian War. Some years of miscellaneous experiences in the Portuguese service and on the Polish staff, interspersed with pamphleteering, left him a lieutenant-colonel on half-pay. Removing to America in 1773 he contrived to pose as a great military light, and was in 1775 appointed the second in rank of the major-generals. He was at the siege of Boston, commenced the fortifications of New York, and received the credit of the victory at Charleston in 1776. In the autumncampaign of that year he disregarded George Washington's orders to leave Northcastle, and was soon afterward captured at Baskingridge in New Jersey. He had intrigued against George Washington, and it has believed that while in captivity he negotiated with the Howes. He was exchanged in time to receive command of the van at Monmouth where he behaved ignominiously. After the battle he was suspended for disobedience, misbehaviour and disrespect, and was eventually dismissed from the army. Research Charles Lee
Charles Cotesworth Pinckney was an American politician. He was born in 1746 at Charleston, South Carolina and died in 1825. Educated in England at Westminster School and Christ Church, Oxford, he studied law at the Middle Temple and afterwards practised in his home town. After serving in the American War of Independence with the ramk of major he took part in the Constitutional Convention of 1787 and was responsible for the clause abolishing religious tests as a qualification for office. A strong federalist, he was a supporter of slavery, a governor of South Carolina from 1789 until 1792 and twice an unsuccessful candidate for president.
Charles Pinckney was an American politician. He was born in 1758 and died in 1824. A cousin of Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, he was a member of the South Carolina Legislature from 1779 to 1780. He was a delegate to the Continental Congress from 1777 to 1778 and from 1784 to 1787. He was a member of the Constitutional Convention of 1787, and drafted one of the constitutions proposed. He was Governor of South Carolina from 1789 to 1792 and from 1796 to 1798, a US Senator from 1797 to 1801, Minister to Spain from. 1803 to 1805, Governor from 1806 to 1808. He was a Democratic US Congressman from 1819 to 1821. Research Charles Pinckney
The Probert Encyclopaedia was designed, edited and programed by
Matt and Leela Probert
Abbreviations
Research Gulf Stream
