In a general sense, an apothecary was one who kept a shop or laboratory for preparing, compounding, and vending medicines, and for the making up of medical prescriptions. In England the term was long applied to a regularly licensed class of medical practitioners, being such persons as were members of, or licensed by, the Apothecaries Company in London. The apothecaries of London were at one time ranked with the grocers, with whom they were incorporated by James I in 1606. In 1617, however, the apothecaries received a new charter as a distinct company. They were not yet regarded as having the right to prescribe, but only to dispense, medicines; but in 1703 the House of Lords conferred that right on them, and they latterly became a well-established branch of the medical profession. In 1815 an act was passed providing that no person should practise as an apothecary in any part of England or Wales unless after serving an apprenticeship of five years with a member of the society, and receiving a certificate from the society's examiners. As in country places every practitioner had to be to some extent an apothecary, this act gave the society an undue influence over the medical profession. Dissatisfaction therefore long prevailed, but nothing of importance was done until the Medical Act of 1858, which brought the desired reform. The Apothecaries' Society later prescribed a course of medical instruction and practice which candidates for the license of the society had to pass through. After 1874 apprenticeship was not necessary. Apothecaries were replaced by pharmacists and pharmacies in the 20th century. Research Apothecary
The British Academy is an academy or association of learned men incorporated by royal charter in 1902, its main object being to promote the study of literature, mental and moral science. It comprises four chief sections or divisions, devoted respectively to history and archaeology, philology, philosophy, economics and jurisprudence. Research British Academy
The British Standards Institution (BSI) is an association founded in 1901 at London, which received a royal charter in 1929 and took its present name in 1931. Its function is to formulate standards for building, engineering, chemical, textile, and electrical products, ensuring that they maintain a specified quality. Products so standardised make use of the Kite mark logo as a symbol of quality. Manufacturers who use the Kite mark do so under licence from the BSI on condition that products are subject to regular inspection. Apart from maintaining quality standards in this way, the BSI attempts to ensure that the design of goods is restricted to a sensible number of patterns and sizes for one purpose, to avoid unnecessary variety. The BSI, which collaborates closely with the International Standards Organization, is also actively concerned in metrology, providing information on units of measurement and issuing glossaries defining technical words. Research British Standards Institution
A charter is a written instrument, executed with usual forms, given as evidence of a grant, contract, or other important transaction between man and man. Royal charters are such as are granted by sovereigns to convey certain rights and privileges to their subjects, such as the Great Charter, granted by King John, and charters granted by various sovereigns to boroughs and municipal bodies, to universities and colleges, or to colonies and foreign possessions; somewhat similar to which are charters granted by the state or legislature to banks and other companies or associations, etc. Research Charter
In America, in 1631 a law was enacted by the Massachusetts Assembly, providing that no man should be a freeman of the colony unless he became a member of some church. This requirement was abolished under the charter of 1691. A similar rule prevailed in the New Haven colony between 1639 and 1662. Research Church Members' Suffrage
A city (named from the Latin, civitas), in a general sense is a town holding, from extent of population, favourable situation, or other causes, a leading place in the community in which it is situated. Popularly, the name is also used, both in Britain and France, to designate the old and central nucleus as distinguished from the suburban growths of large towns. The ecclesiastical sense of the term city is a town which is, or has been, the see of a bishop. This seems to be the historical use of the term in England, and still possesses some authority there, but to a considerable extent it has been superseded by the wider one. In America the application of the term is dependent upon the nature and extent of the municipal privileges possessed by corporations, and a town is raised to the dignity of a city by special charter. Generally the term implies the existence of a mayor at the head of the municipality.
The City and Guilds of London Institute is an association established by the Corporation and Livery Companies of the City of London for the promotion of technical education in all its branches. It was founded in 1878, and incorporated by royal charter. Research City and Guilds
Cohens v Virginia was an important American legal case, heard before the US Supreme Court, and decided in 1821. In 1820, P J and M J Cohen were presented before the Quarter Sessions Court at Norfolk for selling lottery tickets in defiance of the statute of the State prohibiting such sales. The Cohens appealed to the Supreme Court of the United States against the fine imposed by the Virginiacourt, pleading the legality of their sale under the 'Act to amend the charter of the city of Washington', passed by Congress in 1812, which permitted the drawing of lotteries. The attorney for Virginia denied the jurisdiction of the court, because a State was defendant and because in cases in which States were parties its jurisdiction was original and not appellate. But the court decided that the EleventhAmendment did not apply, and that in constitutional cases it had always appellate jurisdiction. Research Cohens V Virginia
The Commonwealth is an informal grouping of the United Kingdom and the majority of its former dependencies. The Commonwealth has no charter or constitution, but the heads of governments of its member states meet every two years. The member states are independent, but recognise the British monarch as the head of the
Commonwealth. Research Commonwealth
Dartmouth College vs. Woodward was a celebrated American legal case brought to the Supreme Court of the United States upon writ of error from the Superior Court of the State of New Hampshire, and decided in 1819. WilliamWoodward had been appointed secretary and treasurer of the corporation of Dartmouth College by the trustees of the college, twelve in number, as designated by the ancient charter granted by George III. in 1769 to Governor Wentworth, Eleazar Wheelock and ten others. Woodward was removed from office by the trustees on August the 27th, 1816, and refused to give up certain goods, chattels and property then in his keeping, but belonging to Dartmouth College. On June the 27th 1816, the New Hampshire Legislature, under the influence of the Democrats, had passed an act amending the charter and enlarging and altering the (Federalist) corporation of Dartmouth College; that is, the number of trustees was increased to twenty-one, there were twenty-five special overseers appointed, and the State was to have a general supervision of the affairs of the college. This act, and a similar one, passed on December the 26th, 1816, to enforce the first, were wholly repugnant to the trustees, who refused to obey them. William Woodward had been appointed secretary and treasurer of the new board of twenty-one trustees selected by the State. Suit was brought against him by the old trustees to recover the property of the college then in his keeping. The Superior Court of New Hampshire gave a verdict for the defendant. The US Supreme Court reversed and annulled this decision, allowing the plaintiffs $20,000 damages. It was decided by the court that the charter of Dartmouth College is a contract within the meaning of that clause of the Constitution which prohibits the States from passing any law impairing the obligation of contracts. Hence the New Hampshire law was declared unconstitutional. Daniel Webster was chief counsel for the plaintiff. Research Dartmouth College Vs Woodward
The Probert Encyclopaedia was designed, edited and programed by
Matt and Leela Probert
Abbreviations
Research Apothecary
