Adulteration is a term not only applied in its proper sense to the fraudulent mixture of articles of commerce, food, drink, drugs, seeds, etc, with noxious or inferior ingredients, but also by magistrates and analysts to accidental impurity, and even in some cases to actual substitution.
The chief objects of adulteration are to increase the weight or volume of the article, to give a colour which either makes a good article more pleasing to the eye or else disguises an inferior one, to substitute a cheaper form of the article, or the same substance from which the strength has been extracted, or to give it a false strength.
Among the adulterations which were commonly practised around 1905 for the purpose of fraudulently increasing the weight or volume of an article are the following: Bread was adulterated with alum or sulphate of copper, which gives solidity to the gluten of damaged or inferior flour; with chalk or carbonate of soda to correct the acidity of such flour; and with boiled rice or potatoes, which enables the bread to carry more water, and thus to produce a larger number of loaves from a given quantity of flour. Wheatflour is adulterated with other inferior flours, as the flour from rice, bean, Indian-corn, potato, and with sulphate of lime, alum, etc. Milk was usually adulterated with water. The adulterations generally present in butter consisted of an undue proportion of salt and water, lard, tallow, and other fats; when of poor quality it was frequently coloured with a little annatto, and, at times, with the juice of carrots. Genuine butter should not contain less than 80 percent of butter-fat. Cheese was also coloured with annatto and other substances. Tea was adulterated chiefly in China with sand, iron-filings, chalk, gypsum, Chinaclay, exhausted tea leaves, and the leaves of the sycamore, horse-chestnut, and plum, whilst colour and weight were added by black-lead, indigo, Prussian-blue (one of the deleterious ingredients used by the Chinese in converting the lowest qualities of black into green teas), gum, turmeric, soapstone, catechu, and other substances.
Confections were adulterated with flour and sulphate of lime. Preserved vegetables were kept green and poisoned by salts of copper. The acridity of mustard is commonly reduced by flour, and the colour of the compound is improved by turmeric. Pepper was adulterated with linseed-meal, flour, mustard husks, etc. Colour was given to pickles by salts of copper, acetate of copper, etc. Ale was adulterated with common salt, Cocculus Indicus, grains of paradise, quassia, and other bitters, sulphate of iron, alum, etc. Porter and stout were mixed with sugar, treacle, salt, and an excess of water. Brandy was diluted with water, and burned sugar was added to improve the colour; sometimes bad whisky was flavoured and coloured so as to resemble brandy, and sold under its name.
Gin was mixed with excess of water, and flavouring matters of various kinds, with alum and tartar, were added. Rum was diluted with water, and the flavour and colour kept up by the addition of cayenne and burned sugar. For champagnegooseberry and other inferior wines were often substituted. Port was manufactured from red Cape and other inferior wines, the body, flavour, strength, and colour being produced by gum-dragon, the washings of brandy casks, and a preparation of German bilberries. Cheap brown sherry was mixed with Cape and other low-priced brandies, and was flavoured with the washings of brandy casks, sugar-candy, and bitter almonds. Pale sherries were produced by gypsum, by a process called plastering, which removes the natural acids as well as the colour of the wine. Other wines were adulterated with elderberry, logwood, Brazil-wood, cudbear, red beetroot, etc, for colour; with lime or carbonate of lime, carbonate of soda, carbonate of potash, and litharge, to correct acidity; with catechu, sloe-leaves, and oak-bark for astringency; with sulphate of lime and alum for removing colour; with cane-sugar for giving sweetness and body; with alcohol for fortifying; and with ether, especially acetic ether, for giving bouquet and flavour.
Medicines, such as jalap, opium, rhubarb, cinchonabark, scammony, aloes, sarsaparilla, squills, etc, were mixed with various foreign substances. Castor-oil has been adulterated with other oils; and inferior oils were often. mixed with cod-liver oil. Cantharides were often mixed with golden-beetle and also artificially-coloured glass.
The adulteration of seeds was largely practised also, the seed which forms the adulterant being of course of the most worthless kind that can be had. Thus turnip-seed was mixed with rape, wild mustard, or charlock, which are steamed and kiln-dried to destroy their vitality, so as to evade detection in the progress of growth; old and useless turnip-seed was also used fraudulently mixed with fresh seeds. Clover was also much mixed with plantain and mere weeds.
Acts against adulteration have been passed in various countries and at various times. In Britain there was a law against it as early as 1267. Research Adulteration
Copenhagen was the Duke of Wellington's horse which he rode at the Battle of Waterloo. Copenhagen was born in 1808 and died in 1835. It was a rich chestnut colour and stood fifteen hands high. Upon its death, following retirement at Strathfieldsaye near Basingstoke, Copenhagen was buried with military honours. Research Copenhagen
A Coppice, or copse is a wood in which the trees are cut over periodically as they attain a certain size. In Britain many forest trees, and in particular the oak, the chestnut, the ash, the birch, and the maple, are dealt with in this way. The period for cutting varies with the soil and the tree. The oak usually requires from fifteen to twenty-five years' growth, while the willow is cut regularly every year. The term ia also used in a general sense for a wood of small growth, or consisting of underwood and brushwood. Research Coppice
Saponin is the vegetable principle contained in the common soapwort, quillaia bark, horsechestnut and other plants. It dissolves in water, making a lathery solution which possesses cleansing properties. Research Saponin
The Akhal-Teke is a Turkmenistan breed of light horse, originating around 1000 BC or before. The Akhal-Teke stands between 14 and 15 hands high and is dun, palomino, baychestnut or grey in colour and have a sparse mane and tail. They are very long and slender through the frame with a finely modelled head and an unusually long and muscular neck. The shoulders are sloping, allowing a soft gait. The withers are high, and the back is long with a shallow ribcage. The legs are long and fine boned. The Akhal-Teke makes a good riding horse, having a brave but stubborn temperament. Traditionally they are used for racing, and are respected for their endurance. Research Akhal-Teke
The Alter-Real is a Portuguese breed of light horse developed by the Braganza royal family in 1747 from 300 imported Andalusian mares. The Alter-Real stands between 15 and 16 hands high, is mostly bay but can be chestnut, grey or brown in colour. They have an average-sized head with a pronounced jaw and a short, muscular, arched neck. The Alter-Real is a difficult horse, suitable only for experienced and skilled riders. Research Alter-Real
The American Saddlebred (formerly Kentucky Saddler) is an American breed of light horse originating from Kentucky during the 19th century. The American Saddlebred stands between 15 and 16 hands high and is usually chestnut in colour, with a small head, muscular neck set high on the shoulders and a broad chest. They are a spirited breed with a willing and calm nature used for riding and hunting with hounds. Research American Saddlebred
The Andalusian (or Pura Raza Espanola) is a Spanish breed of light horse standing between 15 and 16 hands high and mostly grey in colour but sometimes bay, black, chestnut or roam in colour. They are a docile and quiet breed but also energetic and brave and have an unusual high-stepping gait and great presence. Research Andalusian Horse
The Anglo-Arab is a British breed of riding horse developed during the 18th and 19th centuries from crossing the Thoroughbred and the Arab. The Anglo-Arab is a naturally athletic breed with speed and jumping abilities, standing 15.2 to 16.3 hands high and bay, brown, chestnut or grey in colour. Research Anglo-Arab
The Probert Encyclopaedia was designed, edited and programed by
Matt and Leela Probert
Abbreviations
Research Adulteration
