The Asp, or Aspic (Naja, or Vipera haje) is a species of viper found in Egypt, resembling the cobra da capello or spectacle-serpent of the East Indies, and having a very venomous bite. When approached or disturbed it elevates its head and body, swells out its neck, and appears to stand erect to attack the aggressor. Hence the ancient Egyptians believed that the asps were guardians of the spots they inhabited, and the figure of this Asp, from ancient reptile was adopted as Egyptian monument. an emblem of the protecting genius of the world. The balancing motions made by it in the endeavour to maintain the erect attitude have led to the employment of the asp as a dancing Serpent by the African jugglers. The deaf adder that stoppeth her ear of Psalm LVIII. 4, 5 is translated asp in the margin, and seems to have been this species. Cleopatra is said to have committed suicide by means of an asp's bite, but the incident is generally associated with the Cerastes or horned viper, not with the haje. The name asp is also given to a viper (Vipera aspis) common on the continent of Europe. Research Asp
Caius Julius Caesar Octavianus Augustus originally called Caius Octavius,was a Roman Emperor. He was born in63 BC and died in 14 AD. He was the son of Caius Octavius and Atia, a daughter of Julia, the sister of Julius Caesar. Octavius was at Apollonia, in Epirus, when he received news of the death of his uncle in 44 BC, who had previously adopted him as his son. He returned to Rome to claim Caesar's property and avenge his death, and now took, according to usage, his uncle's name with the surname Octavianus. He was aiming secretly at the chief power, but at first he joined the republican party, and assisted at the defeat of Antony at Mutina. He got himself chosen consul in 43. Soon after the first triumvirate was formed between him and Antony and Lepidus, and this was followed by the conscription and assassination of three hundred senators and two thousand knights of the party opposed to the triumvirate. Next year Octavianus and Antony defeated the republican army under Brutus and Cassius at Philippi.
The victors now divided the Roman world between them, Octavianus getting the West, Antony the East, and Lepidus Africa. Sextus Pompeius, who had made himself formidable at sea, had now to be put down; and Lepidus, who had hitherto retained an appearance of power, was deprived of all authority in 36 BC and retired into private life. Antony and Octavianus now shared the empire between them; but while the former, in the East, gave himself up to a life of luxury, and alienated the Romans by his alliance with Cleopatra and his adoption of Oriental manners, Octavianus skilfully cultivated popularity, and soon declared war ostensibly against the Queen of Egypt. The naval victory of Actium, in which the fleet of Antony and Cleopatra was defeated, made Octavianus master of the world, in 31 BC. He returned to Rome in 29 BC, celebrated a splendid triumph, and caused the temple of Janus to be closed in token of peace being restored. Gradually all the highest offices of state, civil and religious, were united in his hands, and the new title of Augustus was also assumed by him, being formally conferred by the senate in 27 BC. Great as was the power given to him, he exercised it with wise moderation, and kept up the show of a republican form of government.
Under him successful wars were carried on in Africa and Asia (against the Parthians), in Gaul and Spain, in Pannonia, Dalmatia, etc; but the defeat of Varus by the Germans under Armmius with the loss of three legions, in 9 AD, was a great blow to him in his old age. Many useful decrees proceeded from him, and various abuses were abolished. He gave a new form to the senate, employed himself in improving the morals of the people, enacted laws for the suppression of luxury, introduced discipline into the armies, and order into the games of the circus. He adorned Rome in such a manner that it was said, ' He found it of brick, and left it of marble.' The people erected altars to him, and, by a decree of the senate, the month Sextilis was called Augustus (our August). He was a patron of literature; Virgil and Horace were befriended by him, and their works and those of their contemporaries are the glory of the Augustan Age. His death, which took place at Nola, plunged the empire into the greatest grief. He was thrice married, but had no son, and was succeeded by his stepson Tiberius, whose mother Livia he had married after prevailing on her husband to divorce her. Research Augustus
The most famous Cleopatra was Cleopatra VI, who was the last Queen of Egypt. According to Roman propaganda and legend she was born in 69 BC of Macedonian descent and became joint ruler with her brother, Ptolemy XIV in 52 BC. Exiled by her brother she retired to Syria and secured the aid of Julius Caesar. Ptolemy XIV was killed and Cleopatra was made Queen whereupon she returned to Rome with Caesar as his mistress.
On Caesar's death in 44 BC Cleopatra returned to Egypt and declared Caesarion, her son by Caesar, joint ruler. Mark Anthony now became her lover and put Caesarion to death. Cleopatra killed herself with the bite of an asp after failing to win favour with the new Roman Emperor Octavius and fearing capture.
It is far more likely that the Arabic accounts of Cleopatra are more accurate than the Roman, as Cleopatra was a political enemy of the Roman Empire. The Arabic accounts describe Cleopatra as an accomplished and effective ruler, scholar, alchemist, scientist and physician who effectively challenged Roman rule in the Eastern Mediterranean and who was the antipathy of Roman values.
Whether Cleopatra committed suicide or not is not known. The Roman propaganda, so popular with the Victorian British would have us believe so, but modern scholars researching Cleopatra consider it unlikely that Cleopatra would have killed herself. Research Cleopatra
Giovanni Battista Tiepolo was a Venetian painter. He was born in 1692 at Venice and died in 1769. He studied under Gregorio Lazzarini, but his work shows signs of more influence by Titian and Veronese. He began his career in Venice, where the bulk of his frescoes and oil paintings, executed for churches and palaces, are preserved. He is famous for the frescoes he painted, including his Antony and Cleopatra series in the PalazzoLabia. From 1750 until 1753 he was at Wurzburg, employed with his sons on the decoration of the archbishop's palace. He also worked at Bergamo and at Madrid, where he died. Research Giovanni Tiepolo
Sir Henry Rider Haggard was an English novelist. He was born in 1856 at Bradenham Hall, Norfolk and died in 1925. The son of a Norfolk landed proprietor, he became secretary to Sir Henry Bulwer, governor of Natal, in 1875, and held various other appointments in South Africa, including the mastership of the high-court of the Transvaal; but after 1879 mainly resided in England, being called to the bar in 1884. He made Africa the scene of Some of his novels, and his pictures of life and fighting among Kaffirs and other South African peoples are often more highly coloured than artistic. His first book was Cetewayo and his White Neighbours (1882), but he became much better known by his King Solomon's Mines (1886), and still more by his romantic She (1887), which were followed by Allan Quatermain, Jess, Maiwa's Revenge, Mr. Meeson's Will, Colonel Quaritch, V.C., Cleopatra, Eric Bright-eyes, Nada the Lily, Montezuma's Daughter, Joan Haste, Swallow, a Story of the Great Trek, Pearl-Maiden, Ayesha (a continuation of She), etc.
His tales are strong in incident and adventure, but weak in character-drawing. He greatly interested himself in the agriculture and rural industries of England, and made personal investigations by travel and otherwise, one result being the work (in two volumes) entitled Rural England (1902). Research Henry Rider Haggard
Herod Antipas was a Jewish politiciam. He was the son of Herod the Great by his fifth wife, Cleopatra, and was appointed tetrarch of Galilee on his death in 4 BC. This was the Herod who put to deathSt John the Baptist, in compliment to his wife Herodias, supposedly in revenge for his reproaches of their incestuous marriage. Having visited Rome he was accused of having been concerned in the conspiracy of Sejanus, and was stripped of his dominions, and in 39 AD was sent with his wife into exile at Lugdunum (Lyons), or, as some say, to Spain, where he died. Research Herod Antipas
Marcus Antonius (Mark Antony) was a Roman triumvir. He was born in 83 BC and died in 30 BC. He was connected with the family of Caesar by his mother. Debauchery and prodigality marked his youth. To escape his creditors he went to Greece in 58, and from thence followed the consul Gabinius on a campaign in Syria as commander of the cavalry. He served in Gaul under Caesar in 52 and 51. In 50 he returned to Rome to support the interests of Caesar against the aristocratical party headed by Pompey, and was appointed tribune.
When war broke out between Caesar and Pompey, Antony led reinforcements to Caesar in Greece, and in the battle of Pharsalia he commanded the left wing. He afterwards returned to Rome with the appointment of master of the horse and governor of Italy in 47. In 44 BC he became Caesar's colleague in the consulship. Soon after Caesar was assassinated, and Antony would have shared the same fate had not Brutus stood up in his behalf. Antony, by the reading of Caesar's will, and by the oration which he delivered over his body, excited the people to anger and revenge, and the murderers were obliged to flee. After several quarrels and reconciliations with Octavianus, Caesar's heir, Antony departed to Cisalpine Gaul, which province had been conferred upon him against the will of the senate. But Marcus Cicero thundered against him in his famous Philippics; the senate declared him a public enemy, and entrusted the conduct of the war against him to Octavianus and the consuls Hirtius and Pansa. After a campaign of varied fortunes Antony fled with his troops over the Alps. Here he was joined by Lepidus, who commanded in Gaul, and through whose mediationAntony and Octavianus were again reconciled. It was agreed that the .Roman world should be divided among the three conspirators, who were called triumvirs.
Antony was to take Gaul; Lepidus, Spain; and Octavianus, Africa and Sicily. They decided upon the proscription of their mutual enemies, each giving up his friends to the others, the most celebrated of the victims being Marcus Cicero the orator. Antony and Octavianus departed in 42 for Macedonia, where the united forces of their enemies, Brutus and Cassius, formed a powerful army, which was, however, speedily defeated at Philippi. Antony next visited Athens, and thence proceeded to Asia. In Cilicia he ordered Cleopatra, queen of Egypt, to apologize for her insolent behaviour to the triumviri. She appeared in person, and her charms fettered him for ever. He followed her to Alexandria, where he bestowed not even a thought upon the affairs of the world, until he was aroused by a report that hostilities had commenced in Italy between his own relatives and Octavianus.
A short war followed, which was decided in favour of Octavianus before the arrival of Antony in Italy. A reconciliation was effected, which was sealed by the marriage of Antony with Octavia, the sister of Octavianus. A new division of the Roman dominions was now made in 40, by which Antony obtained the East, Octavianus the West. After his return to AsiaAntony gave himself up entirely to Cleopatra, assuming the style of an eastern despot, and so alienating many of his adherents and embittering public opinion against him at Rome. At length war was declared at Rome against the Queen of Egypt, and Antony was deprived of his consulship and government. Each party assembled its forces, and Antony lost, in the naval battle at Actium in 31 BC, the dominion of the world. He followed Cleopatra to Alexandria, and on the arrival of Octavianus his fleet and cavalry deserted, and his infantry was defeated. Deceived by a false report which Cleopatra had disseminated of her death, he killed himself by falling upon his own sword in 30 BC. Research Marcus Antonius
Samuel Barber was an American composer. He was born in 1910 at West Chester and died in 1981. He trained at the Curtis Institute of Music, Philadelphia. One of the best-known American composers of the neo-romantic school, he received the Prix de Rome in 1935, Pulitzer Travelling Scholarships in music in 1935 and 1936, a Guggenheim Fellowship in 1945, and the Pulitzer Prize for music in 1958 and 1963. Among his compositions for orchestra are the overture to The School for Scandal written in 1933, Adagio for Strings written in 1936, and two symphonies written in 1936 and 1944; concertos for violin written in 1940, cello written in 1945, and piano written in 1962; and the ballets Medea written in 1946. He also composed works for chorus, chamber ensemble, and piano, and he is noted for his songs. His first opera, Vanessa written in 1958, has been recorded. His second opera, Anthony and Cleopatra written in 1966, was commissioned for the opening performance at the new Metropolitan Opera House in New York City. Research Samuel Barber
Count Vittorio Alfieri was an Italian poet and playwright. He was born in 1749 at Asti, Piedmont and died in 1803. After extensive European travels he began to write, and his first play, Cleopatra produced in 1775, being received with general applause he determined to devote all his efforts to attaining a position among writers of dramatic poetry. At Florence he became intimate with the Countess of Albany, wife of Prince Charles Stuart, and on the death of the prince she lived with him as his mistress. This connection he believed to have served to stimulate and elevate his poetic powers. He died at Florence and was buried in the church of Santa Croce, between Macchiavelli and Michael Angelo, where a beautiful monument by Canova covers his remains. He wrote twenty-one tragedies and six comedies. His tragedies are full of lofty and patriotic sentiments, but the language is stiff and without poetic grace, and the plots poor. Nevertheless he is considered the first tragic writer of Italy, and has served as a model for his successors. Alfieri composed also an epic, lyrics, satires, and poetical translations from the ancient classics. He left an interesting autobiography. Research Vittorio Alfieri
The Probert Encyclopaedia was designed, edited and programed by
Matt and Leela Probert
Abbreviations
Research Asp
