Brumaire was the second month in the calendar adopted by the first French Republic. It began on the 23rd of October and ended on the 21st of November. The 18th Brumaire of the year VIII of the French Revolution (November the 9th, 1799) witnessed the overthrow of the Directory by Bonaparte. The next day he dispersed at the point of the bayonet the Council of Five Hundred, and was elected consul. Research Brumaire
Ivory carving is the art of carving ivory for ornamental or useful purposes, practised from prehistoric to modern times. The ivory most frequently used is obtained from elephant tusks, but other types of ivory or substitute materials include the tusks, teeth, horns, and bones of the narwhal, walrus, and other animals, as well as vegetableivory and synthetic ivories. The earliest ivory carvings known were made in the Old Stone Age. The inhabitants of Europe in the Perigoridan period more than 20,000 years ago produced great numbers of ivory, bone, and horn carvings, with nude female figures being the most common subject. Representations of animals occur most often in the subsequent Magdalenian period. In Egypt the art of ivory and bone carving was developed in predynastic times, before 3000 BC . Large numbers of carved figures of men and women, as well as carved combs, hairpins, and handles, have been found in Egyptian tombs dating from predynastic and early dynastic periods. Objects found in Egyptian tombs of later date include carved ivory weapon hilts and furniture and caskets inlaid with ivory carvings.
Mesopotamian ivories frequently show strong Egyptian influence. They include a series of tablets carved with figures in low relief, made at the ancient Assyrian capital Nineveh. The Minoans in Crete, and later the ancient Greeks, were noted for their ivory carvings. The Minoans carved small acrobats and snake goddesses.
The Greeks were famous especially in the 5th century BC for their chryselephantine statues, often of heroic size, in which the flesh was represented in carved ivory and the hair and garments in sculptured gold. Among the Romans, in late imperial times, consular diptychs of carved ivory were much in demand. A consular diptych was a two-leafed tablet decorated with portraits and scenes commemorating the inauguration of a consul. It contained a sheet of wax for writing and was given to friends. Ivory carving flourished under the Byzantine Empire, particularly in the 5th and 6th centuries and from the 10th to the 13th century. Christian figures, symbols, and scenes were the subjects most commonly depicted on ivory book covers, icons, boxes, shrines, crosiers, crucifixes, door panels, and thrones. A masterpiece of Byzantine ivory is the Throne of Maximilian. Most Byzantine carvings, however, were in the form of a diptych. In Europe during the reigns of Charlemagne and his successors in the 9th and 10th centuries, elaborately carved ivory book covers, reliquaries, and altarpieces were produced.
Relatively little ivory carving was undertaken in Romanesque Europe, but it reached great heights in the Gothic period. Gothic ivories from the 13th to the 15th century were chiefly religious, as in earlier periods, but were more for private devotions than ecclesiastical use. Popular objects included diptychs with deeply carved figures and elaborate architectural decoration. Especially fine work was produced in Paris. During the 15th and 16th centuries, ivory carving was not popular, but in the baroque and rococo periods in the 17th and 18th centuries it again came into vogue, especially in Germany and the Netherlands. German craftsmen were known for richly ornamented ivories; Flemish craftsmen produced statuettes and other sculpture- inspired ivory carvings. France again became an important ivory- carving centre. The chief centres of the industry were the French cities of Dieppe and Paris, where large numbers of crucifixes and other religious objects were produced.
During the 18th century, however, the demand for ivories diminished. Ivory recovered its popularity in decorative arts in the Art Nouveau style at the end of the 19th century. Old ivory carvings are especially valued by 20th-century collectors of ivory, but very little ivory work is now produced in the western hemisphere. Muslim craftsmen in the Middle East created ivory inlay in intricate arabesque patterns on furniture and other woodwork. In the Far East the best-known ivories are those of India, Japan, and particularly China. Indians carved figures of their gods and ornate caskets, often imitating Italian styles. Japanese netsukes, small carved purse toggles, are often made of ivory. The Chinese have traditionally esteemed ivory and encouraged their artists to work in it. The art still flourishes today; objects created include statuettes, chess pieces, fans, screens, toilet articles, chopsticks, and models of buildings and boats. The Chinese are world famous for their ivory curiosities, particularly the concentric ivory balls carved one inside the other by Cantonese craftsmen. In Inuit, African, and American Indian cultures, carving in ivory, horn, and bone has been practised from the earliest times to the present day. Research Ivory Carving
The Legion of Honour is a French order of merit, created in 1802 by Napoleon, when first consul, with the view of specially marking exploits and services in the military and civil departments. Napoleon himself was first grand master. Research Legion of Honour
Napoleon Bonaparte as First Consul conceived the idea of forming a great French colonial empire in the Mississippi Valley, to balance the influence of the Anglo-Saxon race in America. To this end he acquired Louisiana from Spain by the treaty of San Ildefonso. San Domingo (the island of Hispaniola) was to be his military base, and its reconquest was to be a first step. However, the blacks of San Domingo revolted, took over the island and abolished slavery. His failure in attempts to recover the island, coming at the same time with the opportunity of renewing war with England, caused him, instantly abandoning the whole scheme, to sell Louisiana to the United States. Research San Domingo Revolt
The Treaty of Morfortaine is a name sometimes given to the convention negotiated on September the 30th, 1800, between the United States and the French Republic, which had then recently come under the rule of the first consul, Bonaparte. It was negotiated by Ellsworth, Murray and Davie for the United States, and Joseph Bonaparte for France. It provided for the restoration of captured ships and property, and more liberal rules respecting neutrals, but postponed the French spoliation claims. Research Treat of Morfontaine
The Siamese is a breed of short-haired cat known for its colouration, intelligence and svelte elegance. The coat is thick and glossy, with points on the mask, ears, feet, and tail which can be seal, chocolate, blue, or lilac coloured. The ears are large and pointed, the tail is long and thin and the eyes are sapphire blue. The Siamese has the loudest meow of all cat breeds. The breed originates from Asia and first appeared in Britain in the 1870s when the King of Siam gave a gift of two Siamese cats to Owen Gould, the English consul general in Bangkok, to take back to London. Research Siamese
Cneius Julius Agricola was a Roman consul, general and colonial governor. He was born in 37 and died in 93. A Roman consul under the Emperor Vespasian, and governor in Britain, the greater part of which he reduced to the dominion of Rome he distinguished himself as a statesman and general. His life, written by his son-in-law, the historian Tacitus, gives the best extant account of Britain in the early part of the period of the Roman rule. He was the twelfth Roman general who had been in Britain, but was the only one who effectually subdued the southern portion of it and reconciled the Britons to the Roman yoke. This he did by teaching them the arts of civilization and to settle in towns. He constructed the chain of forts between the Forth and the Clyde, defeated Galgacus at the battle of the Grampians, and sailed round the island, discovering the Orkneys. Research Agricola
Alfred T A Torbert was an American soldier. He was born in 1833 and died in 1880. He led a Federal brigade at Manassas, Crampton's Gap and Gettysburg in 1862. In 1864 he was placed in command of a division of cavalry in the Army of the Potomac. He fought at Cold Harbor, Trevillian Station, Winchester and Cedar Creek. He commanded at Tom's River, Liberty Mills and Gordonsville. He was Consul General at Paris from 1873 to 1878. Research Alfred Torbert
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Abbreviations
Research Brumaire
