Acts of the Apostles is one of the books of the New Testament. It was written in Greek by St Luke, probably in 63 or 64. It embraces a period of about thirty years, beginning immediately after the resurrection, and extending to the second year of the imprisonment of St Paul in Rome. Very little information is given regarding any of the apostles, excepting St Peter and St Paul, and the accounts of them are far from being complete.
It describes the gathering of the infantchurch; the fulfilment of the promise of Christ to his apostles in the descent of the Holy Ghost; the choice of Matthias in the place of Judas, the betrayer; the testimony of the apostles to the resurrection of Jesus in their discourses; their preaching in Jerusalem and in Judea, and afterwards to the Gentiles; the conversion of Paul, his preaching in Asia Minor, Greece, and Italy, his miracles and labours. Research Acts of the Apostles
Apostasy is a renunciation of opinions or practices and the adoption of contrary ones, usually applied to renunciation of religious opinions. It is always an expression of reproach. What one party calls apostasy is termed by the other conversion. Catholics, also, call those persons apostates who forsake a religious order or renounce their religious vows without a lawful dispensation. Research Apostasy
Conversion is a term in logic. A proposition is converted when the predicate is put in the place of the subject, and the subject in place of the predicate; as, 'no A is B' ('no virtuous man is a rebel'), the converse of which is 'no B is A' ('no rebel is a virtuous man'). Simple conversion, however, in this manner is not always logical. In the case of universal affirmatives, for example, 'all A are B' (say, 'all men are animals'), the simple converse ' all B are A' ('all animals are men') would not be true. Research Conversion
A heretic is one who embraces a heresy, that is, one who holds some theological doctrine which conflicts with the beliefs of the Catholic or universal church, but who, at the same time, calls himself a Christian.
Many of the early Christians preserved their Jewish or Greek philosophical notions, and mingled them with the doctrines of Christianity. Even in the time of the apostles we find traces of the Gnostics, and subsequently a great variety of heretical sects or sectaries arose. Among the chief may be mentioned the Manichaeans, Sabellians, Arians, Apollinarians, Nestorians, Monophysites, Pelagians, Monothelites, Paulicians, etc. Among religionists stigmatized as heretics in later times by the Roman Catholic Church, were the Waldenses, the Wicliffites, Hussites, Lutherans, and all Protestant sects and churches.
Before Christianity was made the religion of the Roman state, nothing but excommunication was inflicted upon the heretic; but severe laws were passed soon after the conversion of the emperors. The code of Justinian contains many ordinances against heretics, and the canon law made it a duty to denounce them, under pain of excommunication. As early as 385 Priscillian was condemned to death as a heretic by the Spanish bishops at the Council of Treves; but the persecutions of heretics, properly so called, began in the pontificate of Gregory VII, in the llth century. Spain, Italy, and France, from the 13th to the 16th century, suffered much from these persecutions, but the states of Germany showed greater moderation. In England the burning of heretics was practised before 1200, and long continued. Heresy is now left entirely to the cognizance of the ecclesiastical courts. Research Heretic
The Inquisition was the name of two historic Roman Catholic tribunals. The first, mediaeval Inquisition was established in 1233 by Pope Gregory X in response to the spread of heretical sects, such as the Albigenses and Waldenses in northern Italy, southern France, and Germany. Judges of the Inquisition were chosen from among the Dominicans to try and judge cases of heresy, then considered intolerable by civil and ecclesiastical authorities alike. If found guilty of heresy, the heretic was turned over to secular authorities for punishment. Though burning at the stake was the ultimate penalty for unrecanted heresy, this penalty was uncommon in mediaeval times. The usual punishment was penance, fine, or imprisonment. Torture was used in the civil courts of the time and was also admitted in trials for heresy by Innocent IV in 1252, despite earlier papal denunciations of torture.
During the Catholic Reformation, the functions of the mediaeval Inquisition were assigned to the Holy Office in 1542. Called the Roman Inquisition, it was active against Protestantism and heard charges of heresy against Galileo in what became a famous trial. Its typical function in modern times was the examination of theological writings. The Holy Office was replaced by the Roman Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith in 1965. The Spanish Inquisition was a quasi- ecclesiastical tribunal established in 1478 by King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella primarily to examine converted Jews, and later converted Muslims, and punish those who were insincere in the conversion.
Pope Sixtus IV reluctantly approved the Spanish Inquisition, which was largely controlled by the Spanish monarchs. The Grand Inquisitor was always a Dominican, however, and the first and most notorious was T. de Torquemada. The Spanish Inquisition was much harsher than the mediaeval Inquisition and the death penalty was more often exacted, sometimes in mass autos-da-fe. It judged cases of bigamy, seduction, usury, and other crimes, and was active in Spain and her colonies. Estimates of its victims vary widely, ranging from less than 4,000 to more than 30,000 during its existence. By the 17th century the harshness of the Inquisition was greatly reduced and it was abolished altogether in 1834. Research Inquisition
Missiones were Spanish religious establishments conducted by Franciscan friars for 'the civilization and conversion' of the Indians in Mexico and California. The first mission founded in California was at San Diego, in 1769; a second was established at Monterey a few months later. Before many years had elapsed there was a line of twenty-one prosperous missiones between San Diego and Point Reyes. In 1834 there were 30,650 Indians connected with the missiones. The property of the missiones was very extensive. Their decline began in the attempt at secularisation by the Spanish Government. The priests had absolute control over the Indians, treating them more like slaves than free men. Research Missiones
The Teutonic Order was an order of knighthood established in 1198. The order originated in the charity of some German merchants who established a hospital during the Siege of Acre in 1990. The order was formally constituted in 1198 at Jerusalem. Membership was confined to Germans, and it was in Germany that the order carried out most of its work, including the conquest and conversion of Prussia.
Acquiring political importance, the order ruled large areas on the borders of Poland and Russia, owing allegiance to no power except the pope. The headquarters of the order were moved from Acre to Marienburg in 1308. The order was finally defeated by the Poles under Ladislas at Tannenberg in 1410.
Following the defeat of the order, its subjects revolted and in 1440 The PrussianLeague was formed and in 1466 it helped Poland to take west Prussia from the Teutonic Order by the treaty of Thorn. This treaty gave the knights of the Teutonic Order control of East Prussia as vassal of Poland, and half the knights were to be Polish. The Teutonic Order remained in this state for sixty years until in 1526 its grand master Albert of Brandenburg became a protestant and made the territories an hereditary grand duchy. The Teutonic Order continued to exist with its headquarters at Mergentheim until 1809. It was revived as an Austrian order of knighthood in 1834. Research Teutonic Order
Currant is the name of two well-known shrubs of the order Grossulariaceae, cultivated in gardens for their fruit. The red currant, Ribes rubrum, the fruit of which is used principally for tarts and jellies, is a native of southern Europe, Asia, and North America. The white currant is a cultivated variety of the red, and is used chiefly for dessert and for conversion into wine. The black currant, Rines nigrum, a native to most parts of Europe, and found abundantly in Russia and Siberia, is used for tarts and puddings and for a fine jelly recommended in cases of sore throat. Other currants naturalized in Britain are the ornamental Ribes aureum from Western America, which produces a fine berry, and Ribes sanguineum, the flowering currant, which is insipid but non-poisonous. Many species are indigenous in America. In Australia the name is given to Leucopogen Richei, one of the Epacridaceae, and in Tasmania to certain species of Coprosma, of the natural order Cinchonaceae. The Indian currant of America is the snow-berry, Symphoricarpus racemosus. Research Currant
An enzyme is a biological catalyst that is not itself destroyed in the conversion process. Enzymes convert organic compounds into simpler substances and are formed by micro-organisms and cells. Research Enzyme
Charles II was King of England, Ireland and Scotland from 1660 to 1685. He was the sone of son of Charles I and Henrietta Maria of France. He was a refugee at the Hague on the death of his father, on which he immediately assumed the royal title. Oliver Cromwell was then all-powerful in England; but Charles II accepted an invitation from the Scots, who had proclaimed him their king in July, 1650, and, passing over to Scotland, he was crowned at Scone in 1651. Oliver Cromwell's approach made him take refuge amongst the English royalists, who, having gathered an army, encountered Oliver Cromwell at Worcester, and were totally defeated. With great difficulty Charles II escaped to France. On the death of Oliver Cromwell the Restoration effected without a struggle by General Monk set Charles on the throne after the declaration of Breda, his entry into the capital on the 29th of May, 1660 being made amidst universal acclamations.
Despite the bitterness left from the Civil Wars and Charles I's execution, there were few detailed negotiations over the conditions of Charles II's restoration to the throne. Under the Declaration of Breda of May 1660, Charles had promised pardons, arrears of Army pay, confirmation of land purchases during the Interregnum and 'liberty of tender consciences' in religious matters, but several issues remained unresolved. However, the Militia Act of 1661 vested control of the armed forces in the Crown, and Parliament agreed to an annual revenue of 1, 200,000 pounds. The bishops were restored to their seats in the House of Lords, and the Triennial Act of 1641 was repealed - there was no mechanism for enforcing the King's obligation to call Parliament at least once every three years.
Under the 1660 Act of Indemnity and Oblivion, only the lands of the Crown and the Church were automatically resumed; the lands of Royalists and other dissenters which had been confiscated and/or sold on were left for private negotiation or litigation.
In 1662 Charles II married the Infanta of Portugal, Catharine of Bra-ganza, a prudent and virtuous princess, but in no way calculated to acquire the affection of a man like Charles. For a time his measures, mainly counselled by the chancellorLordClarendon, were prudent and conciliatory. But the indolence, extravagance, and licentious habits of the king soon involved the nation as well as himself in difficulties. Dunkirk was sold to the French to relieve his pecuniary embarrassment, and war broke out with Holland. A Dutch fleet entered the Thames, and burned and destroyed ships as far up as Chatham. The early years of Charles's reign saw an appalling plague which hit the country in 1665 with 70,000 dying in London alone, and the Great Fire of London in 1666 which destroyed St Paul's amongst other buildings. Another misfortune included the second Dutch war of 1665 (born of English and Dutch commercial and colonial rivalry). Although the Dutch settlement of New Amsterdam was overrun and renamed New York before the war started, by 1666 France and Denmark had allied with the Dutch. The war was dogged by poor administration culminating in a Dutch attack on the Thames in 1667; a peace was negotiated later in the year.
In 1667, Charles dismissed his LordChancellor, Clarendon - an adviser from Charles's days of exile. As a scapegoat for the difficult religious settlement and the Dutch war, Clarendon had failed to build a 'Court interest' in the Commons. Clarendon was dismissed, and was succeeded by a series of ministerial combinations, the first of which was that of Clifford, Ashley, Buckingham, Arlington and Lauderdale. Such combinations (except for Danby's dominance of Parliament from 1673 to 1679) were largely kept in balance by Charles for the rest of his reign. Charles's foreign policy was a wavering balance of alliances with France and the Dutch in turn.
A triple alliance between England, Holland, and Sweden, for the purpose of checking the ambition of Louis XIV, followed; but the extravagance of the king made him willing to become a mere pensioner of Louis XIV, with whom he arranged a private treaty against Holland in 1670 - the secret treaty of Dover under which Charles would declare himself a Catholic and England would side with France against the Dutch, in return Charles would receive subsidies from the King of France (thus enabling Charles some limited room for manoeuvre with Parliament, but leaving the possibility of public disclosure of the treaty by Louis). Practical considerations prevented such a public conversion, but Charles issued a Declaration of Indulgence, using his prerogative powers to suspend the penal laws against Catholics and Nonconformists. In the face of an Anglican Parliament's opposition, Charles was eventually forced to withdraw the Declaration in 1673.
The Cabal ministry was by this time in power, and they were quite ready to break the triple alliance and bring about a rupture with the Dutch. As the king did not choose to apply to parliament for money to carry on the projected war he caused the exchequer to be shut up in January, 1672, and by several other disgraceful and arbitrary proceedings gave great disgust and alarm to the nation. The war ended in failure, and the Cabal ministry was dissolved in 1673.
In 1677 Charles married his niece Mary to William of Orange partly to restore the balance after his brother's second marriage to the Catholic Mary of Modena and to re-establish his own Protestantcredentials. This assumed a greater importance as it became clear that Charles's marriage to Catherine of Braganza would produce no legitimate heirs (although Charles had a number of mistresses and illegitimate children) , and his Roman Catholic brother James's position as heir apparent raised the prospect of a Catholic king.
Throughout Charles's reign, religious toleration dominated the political scene. The 1662 Act of Uniformity had imposed the use of the Book of Common Prayer, and insisted that clergy subscribe to Anglican doctrine (some 1,000 clergy lost their livings). Anti-Catholicism was widespread; the Test Act of 1673 excluded Roman Catholics from both Houses of Parliament. Parliament's reaction to the Popish Plot of 1678 (an allegation by Titus Oates that Jesuit priests were conspiring to murder the King, and involving the Queen and the Lord Treasurer, Danby) was to impeach Danby and present a Bill to exclude James (Charles's younger brother and a Roman Catholic convert) from the succession.
In 1679 the Habeas Corpus Act was passed, and the temper of the parliament was so much excited that the king dissolved it. A new parliament which assembled in 1680 had to be dissolved for a like reason, and yet another which met the year following at Oxford. Finally Charles, like his father, determined to govern without a parliament, and after the suppression of the Rye House plot and the execution of Russell and Sidney Charles became as absolute as any sovereign in Europe.
Charles sponsored the founding of the Royal Society in 1660 to promote scientific research. Charles also encouraged a rebuilding programme, particularly in the last years of his reign, which included extensive rebuilding at Windsor Castle, a huge but uncompleted new palace at Winchester and the Greenwich Observatory. Charles was a patron of Christopher Wren in the design and rebuilding of St Paul's Cathedral, Chelsea Hospital and other London buildings. Charles II died in 1685, becoming a Roman Catholic on his deathbed. Research Charles II
The Probert Encyclopaedia was designed, edited and programed by
Matt and Leela Probert
Abbreviations
Research Acts of the Apostles
