Boiling To Death was made a capital punishment in England by Henry VIII in 1531 as a result of seventeen people being poisoned by Richard Rosse, the bishop of Rochester's cook, two of whom died. Margaret Davy, a young woman was similarly executed in 1542 for a similar crime. The act was repealed in 1547. Research Boiling To Death
The ISO (International Standards Organisation) assigns a two character code to each country name. These codes are used by Internet 'whois' databases (these two character abbreviations are the whois country codes) and also other applications.
Domestic servants, also known as domestics, are members of a household employed to assist with the running of various aspects of the household. During the 18th century in England servants were commonplace, with almost all employed families able to afford servants, or rather domestic drudges, who were supplied from the workhouses and charity schools and treated little better than slaves for the most part. While in apprenticeship female domestic drudges, or scullery-maids also known as scullions, were not paid and could not leave their mistress. Even less fortunate were charwomen, employed for odd work or single days to assist in the kitchen and paid with just a few scraps of food and a few coals.
Page boys, usually black, were employed by the fashionable women of 18th century London to precede her and hand refreshments to her guests. Footmen were similarly employed more for show than labour to impress the guests and people one met on ones travels, hence they received their slang name of 'fart catchers', from their position of walking behind their master or mistress, dressed up in fancy clothes provided by the household as a form of uniform for the job.
By the 19th century conditions had improved for some servants, though for the lower staff they were still appalling. In the mid-19th century Mrs Beeton, the famous author, lists domestic servants in order of rank as follows:
Households would employ a election of servants varying upon the household income, a very wealthy household employing a full selection of servants, a less fabulously wealthy household maybe just employing a housekeeper, a cook or a maid-of-all-work. A chamberlain being only employed by the king or noblemen of very high position. In the mid-19th century most households which employed servants employed two or three male servants, comprising a servant out of livery, or a butler, a footman and a coachman, or a coachman and a groom where the household had more than two or three horses. A popular mis-conception is that cooks are, and were, always female. Not so. Male cooks were also employed in the 19th century and were paid more than their female counterpart.
Each domestic servant had their own scope of duties or responsibilities, though these overlapped depending upon the number of domestic servants employed. A butler, for example, where only one footman was employed would be required to perform some of the duties of a valet, to pay bills and to superintend the other servants.
19th century English society was warned against abusing its servants, for, as Mrs Beeton puts it; "The sensible master and kind mistress know, that if servants depend on them for their means of living, in their turn they are dependent on their servants for very many of the comforts of life; and that, with a proper amount of care in choosing servants, and treating them like reasonable beings, and making slight excuses for the shortcomings of human nature, they will, save in some exceptional case, be tolerably well served, and in most instances, surround themselves with attached domestics." It was possible for domestic servants to progress up the ranks, usually through leaving one position and seeking a higher appointment at another employer. In order to achieve this a servant required a good reference from their employer, and this encouraged a degree of honesty in a position with a lot of opportunity for misappropriation.
The Great War instigated a great deal more equality in British society and the use of domestic servants greatly reduced, though it was still not extinct in the 21st century. Research Domestic Servants
The word Encyclopaedia (Encyclopedia) was first defined in Sir Thomas Elyot's LatinDictionary (1538) as 'that lernynge whiche comprehendeth all lyberall science and studies.' It was first used as the title of a book by Johann Heinrich Alsted in 1608, by which time it had acquired its modern meaning of a book covering every branch of humanknowledge. The term is also, however, applied to a work confined to some particular branch of knowledge. The distinction between an encyclopaedia and a dictionary is that the former explains subjects and the latter explains words, a dictionary being the product of the work of a philologist. And the distinction between a glossary and an encyclopaedia is one of depth, the glossary being much more concise and often restricted to a particular subject, for example horticulture.
The work of an encyclopaedist is some what analogous to that of a chef. Ingredients, in the form of information, is sourced from suppliers - existing data sources - processed and blended together, much as a chef may peelcook and blend vegetables, herbs, spices, meats and fish to form a new dish so the information is paraphrased, blended, corroborated and written down forming a new article. Much as a top class chef takes great care to select quality raw ingredients for his dishes, so too does the top class encyclopaedist take great care to ensure the quality and reliability of the information he sources. Research Encyclopaedia
A footman was a domestic servant. During the 18th century, pompous and grand-looking footmen strutting through the streets of London caused some degree of resentment among the ordinary population who termed them 'fart catchers', and dismissed them as little more than fashion accessories showing off the wealth of their employers. However, Mrs Beeton helpfully describes the duties of the footman to those starting a household in 1860 as:
Where a single footman, or odd man, is the only male servant, then, whatever his ostensible position, he is required to make himself generally useful. He has to clean the knives and shoes, the furniture, the plate [silver plated metal objects]; answer the visitors who call, the drawing-room and parlour bells; and do all the errands. His life is no sinecure; and a methodical arrangement of his time will be necessary, in order to perform his many duties with any satisfaction to himself or his master.
The footman is expected to rise early, in order to get through all his dirty work before the family are stirring. Boots and shoes, and knives and forks, should be cleaned, lamps in use trimmed, his master's clothes brushed, the furniture rubbed over; so that he may put aside his working dress, tidy himself, and appear in a clean jacket, to lay the cloth and prepare breakfast for the family... He lays the cloth on the table; over it the breakfast-cloth, and sets the breakfast things in order, and then proceeds to wait upon his master, if he has any of the duties of a valet to perform.
Where a valet is not kept, a portion of his duties falls to the footman's share - brushing the clothes among others. If the footman is required to perform any part of a valet's duties, he will have to see that the housemaid lights a fire in the dressing-room in due time; that the room is dusted and cleaned; that the washhand-ewer is filled with soft water; and that the bath whether hot or cold, is ready when required; that towels are at hand; that hairbrushes and combs are properly cleansed and in their places; that hot water is ready at the hour ordered; the dressing-gown and slippers in their place, the clean linen aired, and the clothes to be worn for the day in their proper places. After the master has dressed, it will be the footman's duty to restore everything to its place properly cleansed and dry, and the whole restored to order.
At breakfast, when there is no butler, the footman carries up the tea-urn, and, assisted by the housemaid, he waits during breakfast. Breakfast over, he removes the tray and other things off the table, folds up the breakfast-cloth, and sets the room in order, by sweeping up all crumbs, shaking the cloth, and laying it on the table again, making up the fire, and sweeping up the hearth.
At luncheon-time nearly the same routine is observed, except where the footman is either out with the carriage or away on other business, when, in the absence of any butler, the housemaid must assist.
For dinner, the footman lays the cloth, taking care that the table is not too near the fire, if there is one, and that passage-room is left. A table-cloth should be laid without a wrinkle; and this requires two persons; over this the slips are laid, which are usually removed preparatory to placing dessert on the table. He prepares knives, forks, and glasses, with five or six plates for each person. This done, he places chairs enough for the party, distributing them equally on each side of the table, and opposite to each a napkin neatly folded within it a piece of bread or small roll, and a knife on the right side of each plate, a fork on the left, and a carving-knife and fork at the top and bottom of the table, outside the others, with the rests opposite to them, and a gravy-spoon beside the knife. The fish-slice should be at the top, where the lady of the house with the assistance of the gentleman next to her, divides the fish, and the soup-ladle at the bottom: it is sometimes usual to add a desert-knife and fork; at the same time , on the right side also of each plate, put a wine-glass for as many kinds of wine as it is intended to hand round, and a finger-glass or glass-cooler about four inches [nine centimetres] from the edge. The latter are frequently put on the table with the dessert.
About half an hour before dinner, he rings the dinner-bell, where that is the practice, and occupies himself with carrying up everything he is likely to require. At the expiration of the time, having communicated with the cook, he rings the real dinner-bell, and proceeds to take it up with such assistance as he can obtain. Having ascertained that all is in order, that his own dress is clean and presentable, and his white cotton gloves are without a stain, he announces in the drawing-room that dinner is served, and stands respectfully by the door until the company are seated: he places himself on the left, behind his master, who is to distribute the soup; where soup and fish are served together, his place will be at his mistress's left hand; but he must be on the alert to see that whoever is assisting him, whether male or female, are at their posts. If any of the guests has brought his own servant with him, his place is behind his master's chair, rendering such assistance to others as he can, while attending to his master's wants throughout the dinner, so that every guest has what he requires. This necessitates both activity and intelligence, and should be done without bustle, without asking any questions, except where it is the custom of the house to hand round dishes or wine, when it will be necessary to mention, in a quiet and unobtrusive manner, the dish or wine you present.
When required to go out with the carriage, it is the footman's duty to see that it has come to the door perfectly clean, and that the glasses and sashes, and linings are free from dust. In receiving messages at the carriage door, he should turn his ear to the speaker, so as to comprehend what is said, in order that he may give his directions to the coachman clearly. When the house he is to call at is reached, he should knock, and return to the carriage for orders. In closing the door upon the family, he should see that the handle is securely turned, and that no part of the ladies' dress is shut in.
It is the footman's duty to carry messages or letters for his master or mistress to their friends, to the post, or to the tradespeople; and nothing is more important than dispatch and exactness in doing so, although writing even the simplest message is now the ordinary and very proper practice.
In addition, footmen were also required to reserve seats in the family's box at the theatre, awaiting the arrival of the family. To lay out and wait at table for evening receptions and games of cards. To open and close doors behind visitors and to announce visitors upon directing them into the drawing room where the master or mistress awaited. Research Footman
Munn Vs Illinois was an American legal case, known as one of the 'elevator cases'. The case was decided by the Supreme Court of the US. In 1872, Munn and Scott, lessees of a grain elevator and warehouse in Chicago, were found guilty in the Criminal Court of Cook County, Illinois, of violating Article thirteen of the State Constitution relating to the storage of grain. They had neglected to take out a license and give bond, and were charging rates higher than prescribed in the above-mentioned act. They were fined, and the decision was confirmed by the Supreme Court of Illinois, whence the case was transferred to the Supreme Court of the United States. That body confirmed the judgment on the ground that the Act of the Illinois Legislature was not repugnant to the national Constitution, and that a State could lawfully determine how a man. might use his own property, when the good of other citizens was involved. Research Munn Vs Illinois
The Guinea-pig is a rodent mammal of the family Cavidae (the Cavies). It is native to South America and rather stupid, but terribly cute and often kept in Europe as a children's pet. The South American Indians prefer to cook it roasted on a spit over an open fire and eat it. Research Guinea-pig
The Tuatara or Spenodon (Sphenodon punctatus, Sphenodon guntheri or Hatteria punctata) is the only surviving genus of the snout-headed reptiles, Rhynchocephalia order or group of prehistoric reptiles which preceded the dinosaurs. The tuatara is a lizard-like reptile found only on some 30 islands off the north coast of New Zealand, the Sphenodon guntheri species being found only on North Brother Island in the Cook Strait. The tuatara lays between 10 and 14 eggs which it buries in the ground and live either in a burrow it digs itself or sharing a burrow built by petrels. A fully grown tuatara is about 60 cm long, usually dark olive in colour with yellow dots. The tuatara is carnivorous, feeding mainly on insects, snails and earthworms but also eating lizards small birds and eggs. It differs from the lizards in having the quadratebone, to which the lower jaw is attached, immovable; while the bones of the vertebrae are hollowed at both ends. The mandible is beak-like and there is a pineal body, or rudimentary third eye, in the top of the skull. The skin is tubercled, and a crest of small spines runs along the middle of the back and tail. It is a sluggish moving creature. Research Tuatara
Alexis Benoit Soyer was a French cook. He was born in 1809 at Meaux and died in 1858. A famous chef in Paris, he fled to England during the French Revolution in 1830. He was head cook at the Reform Club from 1837 until 1850. In 1847 he persuaded the British government to establish food-kitchens in Dublin to relieve the distress caused by the Irish famine. In 1854 he published 'The Shilling Cookery Book' and in 1855 he went to the Crimea and with Florence Nightingale reorganised the system of food supply. Research Alexis Soyer
The Probert Encyclopaedia was designed, edited and programed by
Matt and Leela Probert
Abbreviations
Research Boiling To Death
