A council is an assembly met for deliberation, or to give advice. The term specially applies to an assembly of the representatives of independent churches, convened for deliberation and the enactment of canons or ecclesiastical laws. The four general or oecumenical councils recognized by all churches are: 1, the Council of Nice, in 325, by which the dogma respecting the Son of God was settled; 2, that of Constantinople, 381, by which the doctrine concerning the Holy Ghost was decided; 3, that of Ephesus, 431; and 4, that of Chalcedon, 451; in which two last the doctrine of the union of the divine and human nature in Christ was more precisely determined.
Among the principal Latin councils are that of Clermont (1096), in the reign of Urban II, in which the first crusade was resolved upon; the Council of Constance, the most numerous of all the councils, held in 1414, which pronounced the condemnation of John Huss (1415), and of Jerome of Prague (1416); the Council of Basel, in 1431, which intended a reformation, if not in the doctrines, yet in the constitution and discipline of the church; and the Council of Trent, which began its session in 1545, and laboured chiefly to confirm the doctrines of the Catholic Church against the Protestants. On the 8th of December, 1869, an oecumenical council, summoned by a bull of Pope Pius IX, assembled at Rome. This council adopted a dogmatic Decree or Constitutio de Fide, and a Constitutio de Ecolesia, the most important article of which latter declares the infallibility of the pope when speaking ex cathedra.
Adela was queen of England. She was born in 1062 and died in died 1137. She was the fourth daughter of William The Conqueror, wife of Stephen, Earl of Blois and Chartres, and mother of Stephen, King of England. In her husband's absence in the first crusade, and after his death as regent for her sons she proved herself an able ruler and a generous patroness of learning. Research Adela
The Albigenses were a sect which spread widely in the south of France and elsewhere about the twelfth century, and which differed in doctrine and practice from the Roman Catholic Church, by which they were subjected to severe persecution. They are said to have been so named from the district of Aibi, where, and about Toulouse, Narbonne, etc, they were numerous. A crusade was begun against them, and Count Raymond VI of Toulouse for tolerating them, in 1209, the army of the cross being called together by Pope Innocent III. The war was carried on with a cruelty which reflected deep disgrace upon the Catholic Church. Beziers, the capital of Raymond's nephew Roger, was taken by storm, and 20,000 of the inhabitants, without distinction of creed, were put to the sword. Simon de Montfort, the military leader of the crusade, was equally severe towards other places in the territory of Raymond and his allies. After the death of Raymond VI, in 1222, his son, Raymond VII, was obliged, notwithstanding his readiness to do penance, to defend his inheritance against the papal legates and Louis VIII of France. When hundreds of thousands had fallen on both sides, a peace was made in 1229, by which Raymond was obliged to cedeNarbonne with other territories to Louis IX, and make his son-in-law, a brother of Louis, his heir. The heretics were now delivered up to the proselytising zeal of the Dominicans, and to the courts of the Inquisition, by which means it was brought about that the Albigenses disappeared after the middle of the thirteenth century. Research Albigenses
Alexius Comnenus was a Byzantine Emperor. He was born in 1048 and died in 1118. He was a nephew of Isaac the first emperor of the Comneni, and attained the throne in 1081, at a time when the empire was menaced from various sides, especially by the
Turks and the Normans. From these dangers, as well as from later - caused by the first Crusade, the Normans, and the Turks- he managed to extricate himself by policy or warlike measures, and maintained his position until the age of seventy, during a reign of thirty-seven years. His daughter Anna wrote a life of him known as the Alexiad, which is one continuous eulogy. Research Alexius Comnenus
Andrew II was king of Hungary from 1205 to 1236. He conducted a crusade to the Holy Land at the instigation of the Pope in 1217. On his return in 1222 he issued his Golden Bull which became the basis of the Hungarian nobles. Research Andrew II
Baldwin I was Emperor of Constantinople. He was born in 1172 and died in 1206. He was the founder of the short-lived dynasty of Latin sovereigns of the Eastern empire, and was hereditary Count of Flanders and Hainault. His courage and conduct in the fourth crusade led to his unanimous election as Emperor of the East after the capture of Constantinople by the French and Venetians in 1204. In the absence of Baldwin's brother with a large part of the army, the Greeks rose in revolt under the instigation of Joannices, King of Bulgaria. Baldwin marched on Adrianople, but was taken prisoner and died in captivity. Baldwin was succeeded by his brother Henry.
Baldwin I was the first Latin king of Jerusalem. He was born in 1058 and died in 1118. Having taken part in the first crusade with his eldest brother, Godfrey of Boulogne, he succeeded on the death of Godfrey to the government of Jerusalem in 1100. Research Baldwin I
Bohemond I was prince of Antioch. He was born in 1056 and died in 1111. He was the eldest son of Robert Guiscard, under whom he served with distinction in the war against Alexius Comnenus, emperor of Byzantium. He took a distinguished part in the first crusade and captured Antioch in 1098 of which he became prince, but was himself captured by the Turks in 1100 and imprisoned for three years. He married a daughter of Philip of France, and with a French army renewed unsuccessfully the war against Alexius. Research Bohemond I
Conrad III was King of Germany and emperor of the Romans from 1138 to 1152. He was the founder of the Suabian dynasty of Hohenstaufen. During the struggle with his rival, Henry the Proud, the factions of Guelf and Ghibelline, named from the war-cries of the respective parties, came into existence. Conrad III, persuaded by St Bernard, took part in the second crusade, from 1147 to 1149. His marriage with a Greek princess led to his adoption of the double-headed eagle now appearing on the Austrian arms. He was succeeded by his nephew Frederick Barbarossa. Research Conrad III
Edward I was King of England from 1272 to 1307. He was born in 1239 at Winchester and died in 1307. Edward I was the son of Henry III and an able administrator and law-maker. He re-established royal power, investigating many of the abuses resulting from weak royal government and issuing new laws. Edward was an effective soldier, gaining experience from going on crusade to Syria before he became king. In 1277 Edward I invaded Wales where Llewelyn ap Gruffydd, prince of Wales, had built up considerable power. In a series of campaigns Edward I gained control of Wales, building strong castles to secure his conquests. Llewelyn was subdued before his death, by the 1277 treaty of Conway. In 1284, the Statute of Wales brought Wales under Edward I's rule. In 1301, he created his eldest surviving son, Edward, the first English Prince of Wales. Wanting to unite the country behind him and to raise money for his campaigns in Wales and Scotland and another war in France, in 1295 Edward called what became known as the 'Model Parliament'. To this meeting he summoned the aristocracy, bishops and abbots, and the knights of the shires, burgesses from the towns and the junior clergy.
Enrico Dandolo was Doge of Venice. He was born in 1108 and died in 1205. He was chosen Doge in 1192, at the advanced age of eighty-four. On the formation of the fourth Crusade Enrico Dandolo induced the senate to join in it, and by its help recovered the revolted town of Zara. Constantinople was next stormed, the blind old doge, it is said, leading the attack. In the division of the Byzantine Empire the Venetians added much to their dominions. Research Enrico Dandolo
The Probert Encyclopaedia was designed, edited and programed by
Matt and Leela Probert
Abbreviations
Research Adela
