Research Results For 'Czar'

ANARCHISM

Anarchists (from the Greek word anarchia, meaning non-rule) believe that every form of government is evil. Towards the end of the last century anarchists assassinated Czar Alexander of Russia and other political leaders to draw attention to their theories. There was a strong anarchist movement in Spain during the 1930s.
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GREEK CHURCH

The Greek Church, or Holy Oriental Orthodox Apostolic Church is that section of the Christian church dominant in Eastern Europe and Western Asia, especially in Turkey, Greece, Russia, and some parts of Austria.

In the first ages of Christianity numerous churches were founded by the apostles and their successors in Greek-speaking countries; in Greece itself, in Syria, Egypt, Mesopotamia, Asia Minor, Thrace, and Macedonia. These were subsequently called Greek, in contradistinction to the churches, in which the Latin tongue prevailed. The removal of the seat of empire by Constantine to Constantinople (Istanbul), and the subsequent separation of the eastern and western empires afforded the opportunity for diversities of language, modes of thinking, and customs to manifest themselves, and added political causes to the grounds of separation. During the earliest period the chief seats of influence in the Eastern Church were Jerusalem, Antioch, and Alexandria, the seat of that mystical philosophy, by which the oriental church was distinguished. In 341, soon after the synod of Antioch, the rivalry between the Bishop of -Rome and the Bishop of Constantinople began to assume importance, and before 400 differences of doctrine with respect to the procession of the Holy Spirit appeared. The council of Chalcedon in 451 accorded to the eastern bishop the same honours and privileges in his own diocese as those of the Bishop of Rome, and in 484 each bishop excommunicated the other.

The title of (Ecumenical Patriarch was assumed by John, Bishop of Constantinople, in 588, and in the following year the phrase 'Filioque' ('and the Son') was added by the Latins to the Nicene creed (which now read 'proceeding from the father and the son'), an addition to which the Greek Church was opposed.

In 648 Pope Theodore deposed Patriarch Paul II; but a reconciliation of the churches was effected at the Council of Rome in 680. The doctrines of the Greek Church were defined by John Damascenus in 730. The disruption was hastened by the banishment of Ignatius by Michael the Drunken and the consecration of Photius in 858. The Pope Nicholas I and Photius excommunicated each other in 867. The schism was temporarily healed after the death of Photius, but Michael Cerularius reopened it by charging the Latins with heterodoxy. He was excommunicated by Leo IX in 1054, and in turn excommunicated the pope in the same year, since which the Greeks have been severed from the Roman communion, though the Russo-Greek Church was not separated until the 12th century.

The presence of the Crusaders in the East aggravated the quarrel; Latin patriarchates were established in Antioch and Jerusalem, and, though on the capture of Constantinople by the Crusaders a Latin patriarchate was set up there in 1204, the schism was revived there as soon as the Latin empire fell in 1262. .Reunion was proposed in 1273 by Patriarch Joseph, and effected, with the acknowledgment of the pope as primate, at the council of Lyons in 1274. The union, however, was annulled in 1282 by Emperor Andronicus II, and in 1283 and 1285 by synods of Constantinople. It was again effected under John Palasologus at Florence in 1439, but was repudiated in 1443 by the Patriarchs of Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem.

In 1453, when the patriarch fled from the Turks, a schismatic Gregory Scholarius was chosen in his place. In 1575 unsuccessful negotiations were commenced with a view to union with the Lutherans, and in 1723 the English bishops even proposed that the Greek and Anglican churches should unite, a proposal revived by the Archbishop of Moscow in 1866. The claims of the czar in 1853 to the protectorate of the Greek churches in Turkey was one of the causes of the Crimean War.

The Greek Church is the only church which holds that the Holy Ghost proceeds from the Father only; the Roman Catholic and Protestant Churches deriving the Holy Ghost from the Father and the Son. Like the Roman Catholic Church it has seven sacraments - baptism; chrism; penance, preceded by confession; the eucharisfc; ordination;
marriage; and unction.
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ALEXANDER II

Alexander II was King of Scotland from 1214 to 1249. Alexander II was born in 1198 and died in 1248. He succeeded his father William the Lion in 1214. He was a wise and energetic prince, and Scotland prospered greatly under him, though disturbed by the Norsemen, by the restlessness of some of the Celtic chiefs, and by the attempts of Henry III of England to make Alexander II do homage to him. Alexander II married Henry's sister, Joan, in 1221, who lived until 1238. In 1244 war with England almost broke out, but was fortunately averted. Alexander II died in 1248 at Kerrera, an island opposite Oban, when on an expedition in which he hoped to wrest the Hebrides from Norway. He was succeeded by his son, Alexander III

Alexander II (Czar Liberator) was Czar of Russia. He was born in 1818 and died in 1881. He was the eldest son of Czar Nicholas, whom he succeeded in 1855, before the end of the Crimean War. After peace was concluded the new emperor set about effecting reforms in the empire, the greatest of all being the emancipation of the serfs in 1861, a measure which gave freedom, on certain conditions, to 22,000,000 human beings who were previously in a state little removed from that of slavery. Under him, too, representative assemblies in the provinces were introduced, and he also did much to improve education, and to reorganize the judicial system. During his reign the Russian dominions in Central Asia were extended, a piece of territory south of the Caucasus, formerly belonging to Turkey, was acquired, and a part of Bessarabia, belonging since the Crimean War to Turkey in Europe, but previously to Russia, was restored to the latter power. The latter additions resulted from the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78. He was assassinated in 1881 by the explosion from dynamite thrown at his carriage in St Petersburg by Nihilists.
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ALEXIS MICHAILOVITCH

Alexis Michailovitch was the second Russian Czar of the line of Romanof. He was born in 1629 and died in 1676. He succeeded his father Michael Feodorovitch in 1645 and did much for the internal administration and for the enlargement of the empire; reconquered Little Russia from Poland, and carried his authority to the extreme east of Siberia. He was father of Peter the Great.
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ARCHIBALD FORBES

Archibald Forbes was a Scottish journalist and war correspondent. He was born in 1838 and died in 1900. He received a university education at Aberdeen and served for some years in the Royal Dragoons, but gave up the army for journalism. As war correspondent of the Daily News he was with the German army in 1870 to 1871 during the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, subsequently visiting Paris at the time of the Commune, India during the 1874 famine, and Spain. He accompanied the Prince of Wales in his Indian tour of 1875 to 1876, and was an eye-witness of the Servian war of 1876, and the Russo-Turkish war of 1877, going to Cyprus in 1878. He was under fire during the Afghanistan campaign of 1878 to 1879; next visited Mandalay, and accompanied Lord Chelmsford's army in Zululand, being the first to telegraph home news of the victory of Ulundi in 1880. His health now began to break down, and he devoted himself chiefly to lecturing. His chief publications were: My Experiences in the Franco-German War; Glimpses through the Cannon Smoke; Chinese Gordon; Souvenirs of Some Continents; William I of Germany; Barracks, Bivouacs, and Battles; Havelock; The Afghan Wars; Czar and Sultan; Colin Campbell, Lord Clyde; Memories and Studies of War and Peace; and Life of Napoleon III.
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BATHORI

The Bathori were a Hungarian family, which gave Transylvania five princes, and Poland one of its greatest kings. The more important members were: Stephen born in 1532, elected Prince of Transylvania in 1571, on the death of Zapolya, and in 1575 king of Poland. He accomplished many internal reforms, recovered the Polish territories in possession of the Czar of Muscovy, and reigned prosperously until his death in 1586.

Sigismund, nephew of Stephen, educated by the Jesuits, became waiwode or prince of Transylvania in 1581, shook off the Ottoman yoke, and had begun to give hopes of reigning gloriously when he resigned his dominions to the emperor Rudolph II, in return for two principalities in Silesia, a cardinal's hat, and a pension. Availing himself, however, of an invitation by the Transylvanians, he returned, and placed himself under the protection of the Porte, but was defeated by the Imperialists in every battle, and finally sent to Prague, where he died almost forgotten in 1613.

Elizabeth, niece of Stephen, king of Poland, and wife of Count Nadasdy, of Hungary. She is said to have bathed in the blood of 300 young girls in the hope of renewing her youth, and to have committed other attrocities. She was latterly seized and confined until her death in 1614.
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CAESAR

Caesar was a title, originally a surname of the Julian family at Rome, which, after being dignified in the person of the dictator Caius Julius Caesar, was adopted by the successive Roman emperors, and latterly came to be applied to the heir-presumptive to the throne. The title was perpetuated in the Kaiser of the Holy Roman Empire, and in the Czar of the Russian emperors.
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CATHERINE I

Catherine I was empress of Russia. She was born in 1680 and died in 1727. She was first the mistress and then later the wife of Peter the Great. A woman of humble origin, having become mistress to Prince Menschikoff, she was relinquished by him to the czar. In 1708 and 1709 she bore the emperor the Princesses Anna and Elizabeth, the first of whom became the Duchess of Holstein by marriage, and mother of Peter III. The second became Empress of Russia. In 1711 the emperor publicly acknowledged Catharine as his wife, and she was subsequently proclaimed empress, and crowned in Moscow in 1724. When Peter with his army seemed irreparably lost on the Pruth in 1711 Catharine secured the relief of her husband by bribing the Turkish general. At Peter's death in 1725 Catharine was proclaimed Empress and autocrat of all the Russias, and the oath of allegiance to her was taken anew. Catharine died suddenly in 1727, her death having been hastened by dissipation.
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CHARLES XII

Charles XII (also known as Alexander of the North) was king of Sweden. He was born in 1682 at Stockholm and died in 1718. He was the sole surviving son of Charles XI, whom he succeeded in 1697, when he was but fifteen years old, he was declared of age by the estates. To his jealous neighbours this seemed a favourable time to humble the pride of Sweden. Frederick IV of Denmark, Augustus I. of Poland, and the Czar Peter I of Russia concluded an alliance which resulted in war against Sweden. With the aid of an English and Dutch squadron the Danes were soon made to sign peace, but Augustus of Saxony and Poland, and the czar were still in the field. Rapidly transporting 20,000 men to Livonia, Charles XII stormed the czar's camp at Nerva, slaying 30,000 Russians and dispersing the rest on the 30th of November 1700. Crossing the Dwina he then attacked the Saxons and gained a decisive victory. Following up this advantage he won the battle of Clissau, drove Augustus from Poland, had the crown of that country conferred on Stanislaus Leczinsky, and dictated the conditions of peace at Altranstadt in Saxony in 1706.

In September, 1707, the Swedes left Saxony, Charles XII taking the shortest route to Moscow. At Smolensk he altered his plan, deviated to the Ukraine to gain the help of the Cossacks, and weakened his army very seriously by difficult marches through a district extremely cold and ill supplied with provisions. In this condition Peter marched upon him with 70,000 men, and defeated him completely at Pultawa. Charles XII fled with a small guard and found refuge and an honourable reception at Bender, in the Turkish territory. Here he managed to persuade the Porte to declare war against Russia. The armies met on the banks of the Pruth on July the 1st 1711 and Peter seemed nearly ruined, when his wife, Catharine, succeeded in bribing the grand vizier, and procured a peace in which the interests of Charles XII were neglected.

The attempts of Charles XII to rekindle a war were vain, and after having spent some years at Bender he was forced by the Turkish government to leave. Arriving in his own country in 1714, he set about the measures necessary to defend the kingdom, and the fortunes of Sweden were beginning to assume a favourable aspect when he was slain by a cannon-ball as he was besieging Frederikshall on November the 30th, 1718. Firmness, valour, and love of justice were the great features in the character of Charles XII, but were disfigured by an obstinate rashness. After his death Sweden sank from the rank of a leading power.
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CZAR

Czar (Tsar), is a former title of the Autocrat of all the Russias, not improbably a corruption of the Roman title Caesar. It was first adopted in 1579 by Ivan II. The feminine of czar is czarina, meaning the Empress of Russia.
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