Research Results For 'Deposition'

DEPOSITION

In law, a deposition is the testimony given in court by a witness upon oath. It is also used to signify the attested written testimony of a witness by way of answer to interrogatories. Depositions are frequently taken conditionally, or de bene esse, as it is called; for instance, when the parties are sick, aged, or going abroad, depositions are taken, to be read in court in case of their death or departure before the trial comes on.
Research Deposition

DEW

Dew is a deposition of water from the atmosphere upon the surface of the earth in the form of minute globules. During the day the earth both absorbs and emits heat, but after sunset its supply of warmth is cut off, though it still continues to radiate heat into the surrounding space. Grass, flowers, and foliage being good radiators, lose after sunset the heat which has previously been absorbed by them, without receiving any in return, and their temperature consequently falls considerably below that of the atmosphere. From the proximity of these cold substances the particles of vapour in the adjoining air are condensed and deposited upon their surfaces in the form of dew, or of hoar-frost where the temperature of the earth is below freezing.

When the sky is clouded the heat abstracted from the earth's surface by radiation is restored by the clouds, which, being good radiators, send back an equal amount of heat to what they receive; and a balance of temperature being thus maintained between the earth and the surrounding atmosphere, no dew is formed. The deposition of dew is likewise prevented by wind, which carries away the particles of air before the vapour contained in them has been condensed. Horizontal surfaces, and those which are exposed to a wide expanse of sky, receive a greater supply of dew than sheltered or oblique surfaces, where circumstances diminish the amount of radiation. The radiation from the earth's surface is one of those happy provisions for the necessities of living beings with which nature everywhere abounds.

The heavy dews which fall in tropical regions are in the highest degree beneficial to vegetation, which, but for this supply of moisture, would, in countries where scarcely any rain falls for months, be soon scorched and withered. But after the high temperature of the day the ground radiates under these clear skies with great rapidity, the surface is quickly cooled, and the watery vapour, which, from the great daily evaporation, exists in large quantities in the atmosphere, is deposited abundantly. This deposition is more plentiful also on plants, from their greater radiating power; while on hard, bare ground and stones, where it is less wanted, it is comparatively trifling.

In cold climates the earth, being cold and moist the clouds prevent the radiation of heat; the surface is thus preserved warm, and the deposition of dew is, in a great measure, prevented.
Research Dew

LAKES

Lakes are accumulations of water in hollows on the earth's surface. When they are drained by rivers their waters are fresh, but when they have no outlet they are salty, e.g. the Dead Sea, Sea of Aral, etc.
Lakes may owe their origin to:

1. The formation of a barrier across a river.


2. Earth movements.


3. Ice erosion.


4. Volcanic action.

The nehrungs of East Prussia are sand-spits which enclose the shallow salt-water lagoons or halls, such as Kurische Haff. Earth movements cause lake formation when subsidence occurs. This is most easily seen in rift valleys. Examples of rift valley lakes are the Dead Sea, Lakes Nyasa and Tanganyika in Africa, and Lake Torrens in Australia. These are all long, narrow, and very deep lakes.
In Cheshire, the removal of underground beds of salt has caused subsidence resulting in the 'meres' of the Weaver Valley. The 'folding' of the earth across the line of a river valley may partially block a river and help to form a lake. The study of a good physical map will reveal the connection between mountain building and the formation of Lake Geneva and Lake Constance in Switzerland. Where there are large areas of depressed lowland wide and shallow lakes are formed in the lowest part of the depression, for example the Sea of Aral in Asiatic Russia, Lake Balaton in Hungary, and Lake Eyre in Australia. Ice sheets and valley glaciers may scoop out hollows to form 'rock basins'. Mountain tarns and corrie lakes in North Wales and Scotland have been formed in this way. Water also accumulates in the hollows of unevenly- distributed glacial drift. Such are the lakes of East Prussia, and also those of the Cheshire-Shropshire borders near Ellesmere. Subsidence of the land surface and consequent lake formation may be directly related to volcanic action. Lough Neagh in Northern Ireland is a shallow lake formed by subsidence of this type. Lakes are often formed by the accumulation of water in the craters of extinct volcanoes, for example the Laachersee in the Eifel region of Germany.
Research Lakes

VALLEY

A valley is a long narrow depression in the earth's crust, flanked by well defined ridges and usually due to the erosive action of rivers or glaciers but sometimes due to trough-faulting.
Longitudinal valleys are the hollows between the up-folded mountain ranges, parallel to the mountains, and they usually contain a largee river. Similar valleys occur between upfoldod mountains and the crustal plateau which has resisted upheaval. The Indo-Gangetic valley between the upfolded Himalayas and the Deccan plateau is the largest example of this type.

The valley cut by vertical erosion is usually V-shaped in cross-section and irregular in its course, its gradient being punctuated by sudden drops and long shelves. These irregularities represent local base levels which are gradually removed by denudation, so that as the falls are worn back and lakes infilled the breaks in the profile are reduced. In southern England the valleys of the Severn and the Thames show the results of denudation, which has carved away the softer rocks, and left the more resistant ridges of the Cotswolds, Downs, and Chilterns, which confine the drainage system.

With lateral erosion and mass movement, the valley broadens. Deposition occurs as the gradient slackens, and floodplains fill the valley floor. Rejuvenation leaves remnants of old floodplains above the new ones in the form of terraces, the highest of which are the oldest. A lowering of the water-table may leave dry valleys, and sudden uplift may leave hanging valleys, while the flooding of valleys by the sea gives rias or 'drowned valleys' which are existing estuaries where the sea has encroached upon the lower courses of rivers, such as the Gulf of St Lawrence.
Research Valley

ALEXANDER VI

Alexander VI (real name Rodrigo Borgia) was Pope from 1492 to 1503. He was born in 1431 at Valencia, in Spain, and died in 1503. When he was only twenty-five years of age his uncle, Pope Calixtus III, made him a cardinal, and shortly afterwards appointed him to the dignified and lucrative office of vice-chancellor. By bribery he prepared his way to the papal throne, which he attained in 1492, after the death of Innocent VIII.

In 1493 he issued a bull dividing the non-Christian world into two parts, Spain to have the western half and Portugal the eastern. This line of division was to be a meridian 100 leagues west of the Azores and Cape Verde Islands, but in 1494 was moved to a meridian 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands.

At the time of Alexander's crowning as pope, both the authority and revenues of the popes were much impaired, and he set himself to reduce the power of the Italian princes, and seize upon their possessions for the benefit of his own family. To effect this end he is said not to have scrupled to use the vilest means, including poison and assassination. His policy, foreign as well as domestic, was faithless and base, and his private life was stained by sensuality. He understood how to extract immense sums of money from all Christian countries under various pretexts. He sold indulgences, and set aside, in favour of himself, the wills of several cardinals. His excesses roused against him the powerful eloquence of Savonarola, who, by pen and pulpit, urged his deposition, but had to meet his death at the stake in 1498. Not long after his election Alexander had the honour of deciding the dispute between the kings of Portugal and Castile concerning their respective claims to the foreign countries recently discovered. His son, Cesare Borgia, and his daughter Lucrezia Borgia, are equally notorious with himself.
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ALI BEY

Ali Bey was a ruler of Egypt. He was born in 1728 in the Caucasus and died in 1773. He was taken to Cairo and sold as a slave, but having entered the force of the Mamelukes, and attained the first dignity among them, he succeeded in making himself virtual governor of Egypt. He now refused the customary tribute to the Porte, and coined money in his own name. In 1769 he took advantage of a war in which the Porte was then engaged with Russia, to endeavour to add Syria and Palestine to his Egyptian dominion, and in this he had almost succeeded, when the defection of his own adopted son Mohammed Bey drove him from Egypt. Joining his ally Sheikh Daher in Syria, he still pursued his plans of conquest with remarkable success, until in 1773 he was induced to make the attempt to recover Egypt with insufficient means. In a battle near Cairo his army was completely defeated and he himself taken prisoner, dying a few days afterwards either of his wounds or by poison.
*Ali Pasha
Ali Pasha was an Albanian chief. He was born in 1741 and died in 1822. A bold and able, but ferocious and unscrupulous Albanian, he was the son of an Albanian chief, who was deprived of his territories by rapacious neighbours. Ali by his enterprise and success, and by his entire want of scruple, got possession of more than his father had lost, and made himself master of a large part of Albania, including Yanma, which the Porte sanctioned his holding, with the title of pasha. He now as a ruler displayed excellent qualities, putting an end to brigandage and anarchy, making roads, and encouraging commerce. He still farther extended his sway by subduing the brave Suliotes of Epirus, whom he conquered in 1803, after a three years' war. He had long been aiming at independent sovereignty, and had intrigued alternately with England, France, and Russia. Latterly he was almost independent of the Porte, which at length determined to put an end to his power; and in 1820 Sultan Mahmoud pronounced his deposition. Ali resisted several pashas who were sent to carry out this decision, only surrendering at last in 1822, on receiving assurances that his life and property should be granted him. Faith was not kept with him, however; he was killed, and his head was cut off and conveyed to Constantinople, while his treasures were seized by the Porte.
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ANTOINE BERRYER

Antoine Pierre Nerryier was a French advocate and statesman. He was born in 1790 at Paris and died in 1868. In 1814 he proclaimed at Rennes the deposition of Napoleon, and remained until his death an avowed Legitimist. He assisted his father in the defence of Ney, secured the acquittal of General Cambronne, and defended Lamennais from a charge of atheism. His eloquence was compared with that of Mirabeau, and after the dethronement of Charles X in 1830 he remained in the Chamber as the sole Legitimist orator.

His political services won for him a public subscription of 400,000 francs in 1836 to meet his pecuniary difficulties. In 1840 he was one of the counsel for the defence of Louis Napoleon after the Boulogne fiasco. In 1843 he did homage to the Gomte de Chambord in London, adhering to him through the revolution of 1848, and voting for the deposition of the prince-president the morning after the coup d'etat. He gained additional reputation in 1858 by his defence of Montalembert, and was counsel for the Patterson-Bonapartes in the suit for the recognition of the Baltimore marriage. In 1863 he was re-elected to the Chamber with Thiers, and in 1864 received a flattering reception in England.
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CHARLES DE TALLEYRAND-PERIGORD

Charles Maurice De Talleyrand-Perigord was a French statesman. He was born in 1754 and died in 1838. A son of the Comte de Talleyrand-Perigord, and accident in childhood rendered him lame and precluded his entry into military service with the result that the family title passed to a younger brother and he joined the church. In 1789 he was made bishop of Autun. He sided with the Revolution and acquired a position of distinction in the National Assembly, and took a leading part in attacking the privileges of the church, relinquishing his orders in 1791. In 1792 he went to England on an unofficial political mission, the French monarchy not having as yet been formally ended. While there he was denounced by extremists in the Revolution, and he stayed in England until the fall of Robespierre. In 1797 he became foreign minister of the Directory, and barring a short retirement held the post until 1807 when he retired with the title of prince of Benevento.

He was minister of foreign affairs in France when Pinckney, Marshall and Gerry were sent from the United States on a special mission in 1797. He demanded (i) a disavowal of President Adams' hostile expressions toward France; (2) a loan, and (3) douceurs, which the American envoys refused to concede. The unofficial French negotiators, Hottinguer, Bellamy and Hauteval, were designated as X, Y and Z in the reports sent to the United States. These X, Y, Z papers aroused great indignation against France. Later, Charles Maurice De Talleyrand-Perigord made overtures for more favourable negotiations. He had visited the United States in 1794. He was still Minister at the time of the Louisiana cession of 1803.

Charles De Talleyrand-Perigord subsequently differed with Napoleon and took a lead in the faction which worked against the emperor and on his deposition in 1814 was rewarded with the post of foreign minister to Louis XVIII. He finally retired in 1834.
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EUGENE DE BEAUHARNAIS

Eugene de Beauharnais was Duke of Leuchtenberg, Prince of Eichstadt,and Viceroy of Italy during the reign of Napoleon. He was born in 1781 and died in 1824. He was the son of Alexandre Beauharnais and Josephine, afterwards wife of Napoleon and Empress of France. After his father's death he joined Hoche in La Vendee, and subsequently studied for a time in Paris. He accompanied Napoleon to Egypt in 1798; rose rapidly in the army; was appointed viceroy of Italy in 1805; and married a daughter of the King of Bavaria in 1806. He administered the government of Italy with great prudence and moderation, and was much beloved by his subjects. In the Russian campaign he commanded the third corps d'armee, and greatly distinguished himself. To him and to Ney France was mainly indebted for the preservation of the remains of her army during the retreat from Moscow. After the battle of Ltitzen of May the 2nd, 1813, where, by surrounding the right wing of the enemy, he decided the fate of the day, he went to Italy, which he defended against the Austrians until the deposition of Napoleon. After the fall of Napoleon he concluded an armistice, by which he delivered Lombardy and all Upper Italy to the Austrians. He then went immediately to Paris, and thence to his father-in-law at Munich, where he afterwards resided.
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GERMAN CATHOLICS

The German Catholics were a religious sect which sprung up in Germany about the close of the year 1844. The immediate cause of its formation was the exhibition by Arnoldi, bishop of Treves, of the holy coat preserved in the cathedral of that city, accompanied by a promise of plenary indulgence to whoever should make a pilgrimage to Treves to worship it. The announcement caused a general feeling of astonishment in Germany, and two priests, Johannes Ronge of Silesia and Johann Czerski of Posen, whose independent views had already caused the deposition of the one and the secession of the other, led a secession movement, appealing to the lower grades of clergy to unite in founding a national German church independent of the pope.

A number of congregations were formed, especially in Leipzig, under the celebrated Robert Blum, and in Magdeburg under the teacher Kote. Two creeds were drawn up for the new church, the Confession of Schneidemuhl, by Czerski, which, though substantially Roman Catholic, rejected indulgences, purgatory, auricular confession, etc, and the Confession of Breslau, drawn up by Ronge. The latter, which was much less orthodox, was substantially adopted by the Council which met at Leipzig on March the 22nd, 1845.

The organization was almost the same as that of the Presbyterian Dissenting churches of Scotland. Each congregation was to choose its own pastor and elders. For a time the new church had a great success. Many Protestants joined the body, which, by the end of 1845, numbered nearly 300 congregations. Difficulties soon arose, however. The majority of the German governments began to use repressive measures. More fatal were internal dissensions, one party, headed by Czerski, clinging to the traditions and doctrines of the Roman Catholic Church, the other, headed by Ronge, tending to mix up democratic and socialistic principles with their creed. The result, in spite of several attempts to re-establish unity, was disintegration and decay. The congregations rapidly dwindled, many being readmitted, to the state church, and, especially after the rise of Old Catholicism, the movement lost all importance.
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