Byzantine art is the symbolic system which was developed by the early Greek or Byzantine artists out of the Christian symbolism. Byzantine Art arose in South-eastern Europe after Constantine the Great had made Byzantium the capital of the Roman Empire in 330 AD and ornamented that city, which was called after him, with all the treasures of Grecian art.
One of the chief influences in Byzantine art was Christianity, and to a certain extent Byzantine art may be recognized as the endeavour to give expression to the new elements which Christianity had brought into the life of men. The tendency towards Oriental luxuriance and splendour of ornament now quite supplanted the simplicity of ancient taste. Richness of material and decoration was the aim of the artist rather than purity of conception. Yet the classical ideals of art, and in particular the traditions of technical processes and methods carried to Byzantium by the artists of the Western Empire, held their ground long enough, and produced work pure and powerful enough, to kindle the new artistic life which began in Italy with Cimabue and Giotto.
With regard to sculpture the statues no longer displayed the freedom and dignity of ancient art. The true proportion of parts, the correctness of the outlines, and in general
the severe beauty of the naked figure, or of simple drapery in Greek art, were neglected for extravagant costume and ornamentation and petty details. Yet in the best period of Byzantine art, from the 6th to the 11th century, there is considerable spiritual dignity in the general conception of the figures. But sculpture was of second-rate importance at Byzantium, the taste of those times inclining more to mosaic work with the costliness and brilliant colours of its stones.
The first germ of a Christian style of art was developed in the Byzantine pictures. The artists, who appear to have seldom employed the living model, and had nothing real and material before them, but were obliged to find, in their own imaginations, conceptions of the external appearance of sacred persons, such as the mother of Christ or the apostles, could give but feeble renderings of their ideas. As they cared but little for a faithful imitation of nature, but were
satisfied with repeating what was once acknowledged as successful, it is not strange that certain forms, approved by the taste of the time, should be made, by convention, and without regard to truth and beauty, general models of the human figure, and be transmitted as such to succeeding times. In this way the artists in the later periods did not even aim at accuracy of representation, but were contented with stiff general outlines, lavishing their labour on ornamental parts.
Byzantine architecture may be said to have assumed its distinctive features in the church of St Sophia built by Justinian in the 6th century, and still existing as the chief mosque in Constantinople. It is more especially the style associated with the Greek Church as distinguished from the Roman.
The leading forms of the Byzantine style are the round arch, the circle, and in particular the dome. The last is the most conspicuous and characteristic object in Byzantine buildings, and the free and full employment of it was arrived at when by the use of pendentives the architects were enabled to place it on a square apartment instead of a circular or polygonal. In this style of building incrustation, the incrustation of brick with more precious materials, was largely in use. It depended much on colour and surface ornament for its effect, and with this intent mosaics wrought on grounds of gold or of positive colour are profusely introduced, while coloured marbles. and stones of various kinds are greatly made use of. The capitals are of peculiar and original design, the most characteristic being square and tapering downwards, and they are very varied in their decorations.
Byzantine architecture may be divided into an older and a newer (or Neo-Byzantine) style. The most distinctive feature of the latter ia that the dome is raised on a perpendicular circular or polygonal piece of masonry (technically the drum) containing windows for lighting the interior, while in the older style the light was admitted by openings in the dome itself. The Cathedral of Athens is an example of the Neo-Byzantine style.
In the fine arts, carnation describes the colour of flesh and as such the parts of a picture which are naked or without drapery, exhibiting the natural colour of the flesh. Research Carnation
Lambrequin was originally a material covering worn over a helmet. It is now a term applied to a short piece of drapery hung over the top of a door or window. Research Lambrequin
Giotto de Bondone (real name Ambrogiotto Bondonne) was an Italian painter and architect. He was born in 1267 and died in 1337. As a boy he tended cattle and sheep, but having been seen by Cimabue, as he was drawing figures of his sheep upon a piece of slate, that artist took him to Florence and taught him painting. His natural talent and gracefulness developed so rapidly that he soon surpassed all his contemporaries. He represented human figures with truth and nature, and surpassed all others in the dignity and pleasing arrangement of his figures, and a regard to the proportions and disposition of the drapery. His figures have more life and freedom than those of Cimabue, as he particularly avoided the stiff style. Among his most celebrated pieces is the Navicella (ship), at Rome (a picture of Peter Walking upon the Waves), some fresco paintings at Florence, also the history of St Francis, at Assisi, and several miniatures. He was equally successful as a statuary and architect. Research Giotto de Bondone
Cooperative Societies are associations of individuals for mutual assistance in industrial or commercial objects. One form of cooperative societies is that of an association of men belonging to some trade or industry for the purpose of carrying it on entirely by their own efforts, and thus securing all the profits of their labours to themselves; but societies of the latter kind have been established very widely in Great Britain, one of the first and most successful of them being the Rochdale Equitable Pioneers' Society, which commenced in 1844. This, like others, was conducted on the principle of dividing the surplus profits among the members alone in proportion to their purchases, after a certain fixed percentage has been deducted for interest on the capital. It provided its customers with butcher-meat, groceries, boots and shoes, drapery, etc and a part of the profits was devoted to educational purposes. Most of the stores sold goods to non-members, and by a system of tickets it was arranged that the latter received a dividend in proportion to the amount of their purchases. Research Cooperative Societies
The tally system was a forerunner of hire-purchase and modern credit agreements. It was a mode of dealing practised in London around 1900 by which customers were supplied with articles, mostly drapery, furniture or hardware, on credit under agreement to pay the stipulated price by fixed instalments weekly or monthly. The tally system evolved into the easy hire system, which in turn became hire-purchase. Research Tally System
Drapery describes the clothes or hangings with which any object is draped or hung; specifically in sculpture and painting the term drapery refers to the representation of the clothing or dress of human figures. Research Drapery
In architecture, an encarpus is an ornament on a frieze or capital, consisting of festoons of fruit, flowers, leaves, etc. The encarpus is sometimes composed of an imitation of drapery similarly disposed, and sometimes of an assemblage of musical instruments, implements of war or of the chase. Research Encarpus
The Probert Encyclopaedia was designed, edited and programed by
Matt and Leela Probert
Abbreviations
Research Byzantine Art
