Fortification is the science of strengthening positions in such a way that they may be defended by a body of men much inferior in number to those by whom they are attacked; and more particularly, the science of strengthening positions so that they may be held against the assault of troops supported by artillery. Fortifications are usually divided into permanent and temporary. Permanent fortifications are works required to remain effective for any length of time, for the purpose of defending important positions and cities, dockyards, arsenals, etc. Temporary fortifications are such as are designed merely to throw temporary obstacles in the way of the enemy, as field-works, etc.
The former are constructed on the principle that each part must by its fire support and be supported by some other part; that the works must protect the defenders from the enemy's fire as well as possible, and that the fire of the fortress must completely sweep all parts of the ground in front of the fortified lines. The more important details of a classical regular fortification may be briefly described as follows: Around the place to be defended was raised a mound or bank of earth called a rampart, on the upper surface of which, the terre-pleine, the troops and cannon were placed. The terre-pleine was protected from the enemy's fire by a breastwork or parapet, typically about 8 feet high, sometimes pierced at certain intervals with embrasures through which the guns were fired. Beyond the rampart was the ditch, usually about 12 feet in depth, but varying greatly in width. The ditch was sometimes filled with water; in other cases it was dry. The scarp or escarp was the inner wall of the ditch, and it was faced with masonwork or hurdles, sods, etc (the revetement) to retain the earth of the rampart in its place. The counterscarp was the opposite or outer wall of the ditch. From the top of the counterscarp outwards was a space about 30 feet wide (the covered-way, protected by a parapet, tle long superior outward slope of which towards the open ground formed the glacis. The use of the covered-way was to allow the troops to be drawn up on it unseen by the besiegers for the purpose of making a sortie; it also enabled the defenders to keep up a closer fire on the attacking forces. The slope of the glacis was so constructed as to bring the assailants in the direct line of fire from the artillery on the ramparts. At certain intervals there were often bastions or projecting works at salient angles, commanding by their fire the curtain or straight portion of the fortified line between them.
The use of the bastion has given name to what was called the bastionary system of fortification, which in the 19th century largely gave way to what is known as the polygonal or German system, which was considered to have various advantages in relation to the relatively powerful artillery of the time. The polygonal system has also been called the caponier system, from the use of powerful casemated caponiers constructed across the ditches and serving instead of bastions for their defence. The general plan of the works was polygonal, with the ramparts placed on the sides of the polygon. The connecting line of fortifications surrounding a place was called the fortified enceinte, and the works in a regular fortress formed a very complicated whole, including works to which such names as ravelins, demi-lunes, etc, were given. The fortified enceinte immediately surrounding a place was not considered a sufficient defence after the 18th century, on account mainly of the long range of the cannon then developed. Hence it was usual in the late 19th century to surround a fortress with a line of detached forts at some distance from the enceinte, or there may be more than one such line of advanced works. Later fortifications intended to ward off attacks by sea had their sea-faces commonly protected by plates of iron or steel. Scientific fortification may be said to have commenced with the great French engineer Vauban, who served under Louis XIV. He developed the bastioned system, which, as improved by Cormontaigne and others, was still the prevailing type of French fortification as late as 1905.
Field Fortifications varied much according to the time allowed for construction, and during which they may prove useful. Among works of this nature were the redan, which consisted of two parapets, with a ditch in front, forming an angle facing the enemy; the lunette, which was a redan with short flanks; the redoubt, a closed work with a ditch and parapet all round. As none of those works had a flanking fire in itself, they had to be disposed so that they flanked each other within rifle range. To do this effectually, and to strengthen the whole line, the plan generally adopted was to form an intrenched camp by a line of square redoubts, flanking each other, and also a line of simple redans in front of the intervals of the redoubts. When the time was not sufficient to throw up such works, simple forms of intrenchment, such as shelter trenches, were used to shelter troops or oppose the enemy's advance. A very shallow trench, with the earth thrown to the front, so as to afford shelter to one man lying in it, can be made in somewhat less than half an hour; more elaborate forms in about one hour. So that by placing a man at every 4 feet, active troops can make good shelter for themselves in an hour. Shallow trenches are still in use today, after most other traditional fortifications have become obsolete due to the nature of modern warfare. To impede the enemy's advance, traditionally an abattia of felled trees was used and later also wire entanglements, chevaux-de-frise, etc. Today wire entaglements are still used to hinder infantry and steel and concrete obstacles are used to hinder armoured vehicles which have replaced the horses of the past.
Traditional fortifications were found to be obsolete at the start of the Second World War, though conceret emplacements with steel doors were still employed by all sides with varying degrees of success, at best hindering the progress of an enemy and never proving impenetrable. Research Fortification
Facing The Enemy is a thriller starring Maxwell Caulfield, Linden Ashby, Alexandra Paul, Melanie Wilson and Cynthia Preston in a story about a policeman being stalked by a maniac who blames him for the death of his wife. Facing The Enemy was directed by Robert Malenfant in 2001. Research Facing The Enemy
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Abbreviations
Research Fortification
