Apocrypha (from the Greek, 'things concealed or spurious') is a term applied in the earliest churches to various sacred or professedly inspired writings, sometimes given to those whose authors were unknown, sometimes to those with a hidden meaning, and sometimes to those considered objectionable. The term is specially applied to the fourteen undermentioned books which were written during the two centuries preceding the birth of Christ. They were written, not in Hebrew, but in Greek, and the Jews never allowed them a place in their sacredcanon. They were incorporated into the Septuagint, and thence passed to the Vulgate. The Greek Church excluded them from the canon in 360 at the Council of Laodicea. The LatinChurch treated them with more favour, but it was not until 1546 that they were formally admitted into the canon of the Church of Rome by a decree of the Council of Trent. The Anglican Church says they may be read for example of life and instruction of manners, but that the church does not apply them to establish any doctrine. All other Protestant churches in Britain and America ignore them. The following fourteen books form the Apocrypha of the English Bible: - The first and second Books of Esdras, Tobit, Judith, the rest of the Book of Esther, the Wisdom of Solomon, the Wisdom of Jesus the son of Sirach, or Ecclesiasticus, Baruch the Prophet, the Song of the Three Children, Susanna and the Elders, Bel and the Dragon, the Prayer of Manasses, and the first and second Books of Maccabees.
Besides the Apocryphal books of the Old Testament there are many other books composed in the earlier ages of Christianity, and published under the names of Christ and his apostles, or of such immediate followers as from their character or means of intimate knowledge might give an apparent plausibility for such forgeries. These writings comprise: 1st, the Apocryphal Gospels, which treat of the history of Joseph and the Virgin before the birth of Christ, of the infancy of Jesus, and of the acts of Pilate; 2d, the Apocryphal Acts of the Apostles; and 3d, the Apocryphal Apocalypses, none of which have obtained canonical recognition by any of the churches. Research Apocrypha
The bible is the sacred book of the Jewish and Christian religions (actually a collection of a number of books) . The Hebrew Bible, recognised by both Jews and Christians, is called the Old Testament by Christians. The New Testament comprises books recognised by the Christian church from the 5th century as canonical (the first Christian bible was produced in 494). The Roman Catholic Bible also includes the Apocrypha. It was only in the 13th century that single-volume Bibles with a fixed content and order of books became common, largely through a Paris-produced Vulgate of 1200 and the Paris Bible of 1230. The first English translation of the entire Bible was by a priest, Miles Coverdale in 1535; the Authorised Version, or King James Bible of 1611, was long influential for the clarity and beauty of its language. A revision of the Authorized Version carried out in 1959 by the British and Foreign Bible Society produced the widely used American translation, the Revised Standard Version.
A conference of British churches in 1946 recommended a completely new translation into English from the original Hebrew and Greek texts; work on this was carried out over the following two decades, resulting in the publication of the New English Bible in 1961 and 1970. Another recent translation is the Jerusalem Bible, completed by Catholic scholars in 1966. Missionary activity led to the translation of the Bible into the languages of people they were trying to convert, and by 1993 parts of the Bible had been translated into over 2,000 different languages, with 329 complete translations.
The King James Bible has probably sold more copies than any other book in history, and is still popular, especially among fundamentalists. The 'Good News Bible' has been the most popular translation into modern colloquial English. Two new versions of the Bible were published in the mid-1990s: the Contemporary English Version of 1996, which rejects old biblical language in favour of a contemporary spoken style, and the Schocken Bible of 1995, a translation of the Pentateuch, which attempts to renew the shock of the original Hebrew. As more manuscripts are discovered, disputed readings become clearer, so that in some respects modern translations are more accurate than older ones. Research Bible
Bribery and corruption are offences relating to the improper influencing of people in positions of trust. The offences commonly grouped under this expression are now statutory. Under the Public Bodies Corrupt Practices Act (1889), amended by the Prevention of Corruption Act (1916), it is an offence corruptly to offer to a member, officer, or servant of a public body any reward or advantage to do anything in relation to any matter with which that body is concerned; it is also an offence for a public servant or officer to corruptly receive or solicit such a reward. The Prevention of Corruption Act (1906) amended by the 1916 Act is wider in scope. Under this Act it is an offence corruptly to give or offer any valuable consideration to an agent to do any act or show any favour in relation to his principal's affairs. Research Bribery and Corruption
The Burnett prizes were prizes established by a Mr. Burnett, a merchant of Aberdeen, on his death in 1784. He left a fund from which were to be given every forty years two theological prizes (not less than 1200 pounds and 400 pounds) for the best two essays in favour of the evidence that there is an all-powerful, wise, and good Being, and this independent of all revelation.
The first competition was in 1815, when Dr. Brown, principal of Aberdeen University, gained the first prize, and Dr. John Bird Sumner, afterwards Archbishop of Canterbury, the second. In 1855 the first prize was adjudged to the Reverend R. A. Thompson, Lincolnshire, and the second prize to the Reverend Dr. John Tulloch, afterwards principal of St Mary's College, St. Andrews. The destination of the fund was later altered by parliament, and from the late 19th century courses of lectures were delivered, the first, on light, being by Professor Gabriel Stokes in 1883. Research Burnett Prizes
A cabriolet (cab) was a vehicle similar to a hackney-carriage with two or four wheels, originally drawn by a single horse but later by a motor. The original cabriolets were for a single passenger beside the driver and were a kind of hooded chaise. In the beginning of the 19th century an effort was made to introduce cabriolets into Britain, to supersede hackney carriages. It was not until 1823, however, that licences were obtained for cabriolets. At first their number was limited to twelve. These were of an improved pattern, with a folding hood, and seated two passengers, the driver being separated from them by a partition. In 1832 all restrictions were removed, and cabriolets came into popular favour. In 1836 a cabriolet on four wheels, the precursor of the brougham, was introduced, and from this the clarence evolved. In 1834 a patent was taken out for an improved, two-wheeled safety cab by Hansom, the architect of Birmingham town hall. The safety consisted in an arrangement of the framework which prevented the cab tilting backwards
or forwards in case of accident. These cabriolets had a small body, hung between wheels of over seven feet diameter. Two years later a fresh patent was obtained for an improved Hansom. Motor cabs were first introduced in 1897, but failed to pay and were phased out, only to start to reappear in London around 1905. Research Cabriolet
The congregationalists, formerly called Independents, are a Christian sect claiming to continue the primitive form of church government; founded by the moderate party among the Brownists and Barrowists early in the 17th century. Under the Commonwealth they rapidly developed, and though they suffered after the Restoration, in common with their rivals the Presbyterians, they speedily recovered after the Revolution, and soon outstripped the latter sect so far as England was concerned.
The name Independent, as it was frequently adopted by other bodies with which they had no sympathy, was discarded in favour of the name of Congregational Brethren, which appeared to express a leading feature in their polity. This is the government of each congregation by all the members of that congregation, and not, as in the Presbyterian church, by a session of the pastor and ruling elders only. Moreover each congregation is autonomous and wholly independent of extraneous jurisdiction, the union of Congregational churches having only such indirect authority as attends the cumulative expression of opinion. In doctrine the majority are evangelical, though in individual churches considerable latitude is shown. Research Congregationalists
The Congress of Troppau was a conference of representatives of five European powers held at Troppau in October and November 1820. It met at the instigation of Metternich to discuss the affairs of Naples, where a revolution had just taken place. Austria, Russia and Prussia were in favour of intervention, but France and Great Britain disagreed. The only result was a protocol signed by these powers, threatening any state which, as Naples had done, changed the form of government by revolutionary means, with exclusion from the European concert and if other states were disturbed by such proceedings, with armed force. Great Britain alone protested. The conference adjourned to meet at Laibach in 1821. Research Congress of Troppau
The Constitutions of Clarendon were a code of laws made by a general council of nobles and prelates, held at Clarendon in Wiltshire, in 1164 during the reign of Henry II, to check the power of the Church and restrain the prerogatives of ecclesiastics. There were sixteen ordinances defining the limits of the patronage and jurisdiction of the Pope. The power of the ecclesiastical courts was restricted, the crown secured the right of interference in elections to ecclesiastical offices, appeals to Rome were made dependent on the king's leave, ecclesiastical dignitaries were deprived of their freedom to leave the country without the royal permission, etc. Becket signed them, but retracted his signature on the refusal of the PopeAlexander III to countenance them. Becket's murder followed, and to effect a reconciliation with the popeHenry II promised the amendment of the Constitutions of Clarendon. They were accordingly modified in 1176 at Northampton in favour of the church, but they are not the less to be regarded as containing the germ of the ecclesiastical policy of Henry VIII. Research Constitutions of Clarendon
Dialogue is a conversation or discourse between two or more persons. The word is used more particularly for a formal conversation in theatrical performances, and for a written conversation or composition, in which two or more persons carry on a discourse. This form was much in favour amongst the ancient philosophers as a medium for expressing their thoughts on subjects. The Dialogues of Plato are the finest example. Many of the great French and Italian writers have used this form. Landor's Imaginary Conversations is a classic example of this kind in English. Research Dialogue
Dispensation is the act by which an exception is made to the rigour of the law in favour of some person. The pope may release from all oaths or vows, and may sanction a marriage within the prohibited degrees of the Mosaic law, or exempt from obedience to the disciplinary enactments of the canon law. In England the monarch claimed, in former times, a similar dispensing power in civil law, but the prerogative was so much abused by James II that it was abolished by the Bill of Rights. The power of commuting sentences in capital cases was the only form in which the dispensing power of the crown remained. In ecclesiastical matters a bishop may grant a dispensation allowing a clergyman to hold more than one benefice, or to absent himself from his parish. Research Dispensation
The Probert Encyclopaedia was designed, edited and programed by
Matt and Leela Probert
Abbreviations
Research Apocrypha
