Research Results For 'Ferdinand I'

ALEXANDER STAMBOLISKY

Alexander Stambolisky (also known as Alexander Stamboliski) was a Bulgarian statesman. He was born in 1879 and died in 1923. Born into a peasant family, he was educated in Germany and became a journalist and in 1902 edited the leading journal of the agrarian party in Bulgaria. In 1911 he became a member of the Sobranje. Always in opposition to the royal party, in 1913 he headed the agrarians in outspoken criticism of Ferdiand I's actions and government, and when in 1915, Bulgaria was definitely committed to assist Germany in the Great War, Alexander Stambolisky registered an emphatic protest warning the tsar of the consequences. He was subsequently arrested and imprisoned for three year. On his release from prison Alexander Stambolisky headed the insurgent troops who deposed Ferdinand I. In 1919 he became premier, and signed the peace treaty in Paris in 1920. As premier he organised an authoritive, anti-communist regime. In 1923 he was overthrown in a military coup and was tortured and executed by beheading by members of the VMRO (Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organisation).
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BOURBON

The Bourbons were an ancient French family which has given three dynasties to Europe, the Bourbons of France, Spain, and Naples. The first of the line known in history is Adhemar, who, at the beginning of the 10th century, was lord of the Bourbonnais. The power and possessions of the family increased steadily through a long series of Archambaulds of Bourbon until in 1272 Beatrix, daughter of Agnes of Bourbon and John of Burgundy, married Robert, sixth son of Louis IX. of France, and thus connected the Bourbons with the royal line of the Capets.

Their son Louis had the barony converted into a dukedom and became the first Duc de Bourbon. Two branches took their origin from the two sons of this Louis, duke of Bourbon, who died in 1341. The elder line was that of the dukes of Bourbon, which became extinct at the death of the Constable of Bourbon in 1527, in the assault of the city of Rome. The younger was that of the counts of La Marche, afterwards counts and dukes of Vendome. From these descended Anthony of Bourbon, duke of Vendome, who by marriage acquired the kingdom of Navarre, and whose son Henry of Navarre became Henry IV of France. Anthony's younger brother, Louis, prince of Conde, was the founder of the line of Conde. There were, therefore, two chief branches of the Bourbons - the royal, and that of Conde.

The royal branch was divided by the two sons of Louis XIII, the elder of whom, Louis XIV, continued the chief branch, whilst Philip, the younger son, founded the house of Orleans as the first duke of that name. The kings of the elder French royal line of the house of Bourbon run in this way: Henry IV Louis XIIL Louis XIV Louis XV Louis XVI Louis XVII Louis XVIII, and Charles X. The last sovereigns of this line, Louis XVI, Louis XVIIL, and Charles X. (Louis XVII, son of Louis XVI., never obtained the crown), were brothers, all of them being grandsons of Louis XV Louis XVIII. had no children, but Charles X had two sons, viz. Louis Antoine de Bourbon, duke of Angouleme, who was dauphin until the revolution of 1830, and died without issue in 1844, and Charles Ferdinand, duke of Berry, who died, on the 14th of February 1820, of a wound given him by a political fanatic.

The Duke of Berry had two children: (1) Louise Marie Therese, called Mademoiselle d'Artois; and (2) Henri Charles Ferdinand Marie Dieudonne, born in 1820, and at first called Duke of Bordeaux, but afterwards Count De Chambord, who was looked upon by his party until his death (in 1883) as the legitimate heir to the crown of France.

The branch of the Bourbons known as the House of Orleans was raised to the throne of France by the revolution of 1830, and deprived of it by that of 1848. It derives its origin from Duke Philip I of Orleans (who died in 1701), second son of Louis XIII, and only brother of Louis XIV. A regular succession of princes leads us to the notorious Egalite Orleans, who in 1793 died on the scaffold, and whose son Louis Philippe was king of France from 1830 to the revolution of 1848. His grandson Louis Philippe, count de Paris (born in 1838, died in 1894), after the death of Count de Ghambord the last male representative of the elder Bourbons, united in himself the claims of both branches, now vested in his son the present Duke of Orleans.

The Spanish-Bourbon dynasty originated when in 1700 Louis XIV placed his grandson Philip, duke of Anjou, on the Spanish throne, who became Philip V of Spain. From him descended the later occupant of the Spanish throne, Alphonso XIII, born in 1886.

The royal line of Naples, or the Two Sicilies, took its rise when in 1735 Don Carlos, the younger son of Philip V of Spain, obtained the crown of Sicily and Naples (then attached to the Spanish monarchy), and reigned as Charles III. In 1759, however, he succeeded his brother Ferdinand VI on the Spanish throne, when he transferred the Two Sicilies to his third son Fernando (Ferdinand IV), on the express condition that this crown should not be again united with Spain. Ferdinand IV had to leave Naples in 1806; but after the fall of Napoleon he again became king of both Sicilies under the title of Ferdinand I, and the succession remained to his descendants till 1860, when Naples was incorporated into the new kingdom of Italy.
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FERDINAND I

Ferdinand I was emperor of Germany. He was born in 1503 at Alcala, in Spain and died in 1564. The brother of Charles V, in 1522 he received the Austrian lands of the house of Hapsburg from the emperor, to which were afterwards added the kingdoms of Hungary and Bohemia in right of his wife Anna of Hungary. On the abdication of Charles he succeeded to the imperial title.

Ferdinand I (previously Ferdinand IV of Naples) of Bourbon was King of the Two Sicilies. He was born in 1751 and died in 1825. He was the third son of Charles III, King of Spain, whom he succeeded in 1759, on the throne of Naples, on the accession of the latter to that of Spain. In 1768 he married Maria Caroline Louisa, daughter of the Empress Maria Theresa, who soon acquired a decided influence over him.

After the death of Louis XVI Ferdinand joined the coalition against France, and took part in the general war from 1793 to 1796; but in 1799, after the defeat of the Neapolitans under General Mack, the French took possession of the whole kingdom, and proclaimed the Parthenopean Republic. The new republic did not last long. Ferdinand returned to Naples in 1800. Six years later he was again driven from Naples by the French, and compelled to take refuge in Sicily, where he maintained himself by the aid of the British.

The Congress of Vienna finally re-established Ferdinand IV in all his rights as King of the Two Sicilies in 1814, while Naples was still occupied by Murat. But after the flight of the latter in March, 1815, Ferdinand once more entered Naples, on June the 17th, 1815. In 1816 he assumed the title of Ferdinand I, King of the Two Sicilies. In 1820, in consequence of a revolution, Ferdinand was obliged to swear to support a new and more liberal constitution. The Austrians, however, came to his help, and re-established him in possession of absolute power.

Ferdinand I was Emperor of Austria. He was born in 1793 and died in 1875.

Ferdinand I was King of Romania. He was born in 1865 and died in 1927.

Ferdinand I was a Holy Roman Emperor. He was born in 1503 and died in 1564.
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FERDINAND II

Ferdinand II was a German emperor. He was born in 1578 and died in 1637. He succeeded his uncle Matthias as Emperor of Germany in 1619. He was of a dark and reserved character, and had been brought up by his mother and the Jesuits in fierce hate of Protestantism. The result was a quarrel with his Bohemian subjects, who openly revolted and offered the Bohemian crown to the Elector Palatine, a step which led to the outbreak of the Thirty Years' war in 1619. With the help of the Catholic League and John George, Elector of Saxony, he was placed firmly on the throne of Bohemia, where he relentlessly persecuted the Protestants.

Ferdinand II was King of the Two Scillies. He was born in 1810 and died in 1859. He succeeded his father Ferdinand I on the 8th of November, 1830. The revolution of France in this year had unsettled the minds of men throughout the Continent generally, and Ferdinand II was at first forced to make some concessions to his subjects, but soon recalled them, determining thenceforward to make his will the only law. The result was a series of popular outbreaks, culminating in the year 1848, when Ferdinand earned the nickname of King Bomba, by bombarding his capital from the forts.Despotism was again established by force of arms, and when Ferdinand II died his prisons were crowded with the best and bravest of his subjects. He was succeeded by his son, Francis II, who lost his crown when Italy was united in 1860 under Victor Emmanuel.
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GIOVANNI GUARINI

Giovanni Battista Guarini was an Italian poet. He was born in 1537 at Ferrara and died in 1612. After having studied at Ferrara, Pisa, and Padua, and lectured in his native city on Aristotle, he entered the service of Duke Alphonso II of Ferrara, who sent him on various important missions. Having lost the favour of the prince he retired into private life, but was recalled in 1585 to the office of secretary of state. Two years after he retired a second time. In 1597 he entered the service of Ferdinand I, grand-duke of Tuscany, a post which he soon resigned. His propensity to litigiousness necessitated his residence at Venice, Padua, and Rome. In 1605 he went as an ambassador of his native city to the court of Rome, to congratulate Paul V on his elevation. Guarini is one of the most elegant authors of Italy, as is especially shown in his Pastor Fido (Faithful Shepherd), a famous pastoral drama.
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HABSBURGS

The Habsburgs (or Hapsburgs) were the most prominent European dynasty from the 15th to the 20th centuries. The family started in Switzerland in the 10th century. In 1273 Rudolph I was elected Holy Roman Emperor, establishing possession of Austria, Carniola, and Styria. The Habsburgs held the title again from 1438 to 1740 and from 1745 to 1806. In 1516 Charles V inherited the Spanish Crown, which he left to his son, Philip II; his Austrian possessions went to his brother, Ferdinand I. The Spanish branch ruled until 1700; the Austrian
Habsburgs became emperors of Austria in 1804 and of Austria-Hungary from 1867 to 1918.
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MAXIMILIAN II

Maximilian II was German emperor. He was born in 1527 at Vienna and died in 1576. He was the son of Ferdinand I and succeeded the throne in 1564.
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AUSTRIA

Austria (in German Oesterreich that is, Eastern Empire) is a republic (formed in 1918 following the overthrow of the last Hapsburg emperor) in central Europe - prior to 1918 Austria or Austria-Hungary as it was also known, was an extensive duplex monarchy covering most of central Europe, inhabited by several distinct nationalities, and consisting of two semi-independent countries, each with its own parliament and government, but with one common sovereign, army, and system of diplomacy, and also with a common parliament.

Austria has a total area of 83,850 km2. The climate is temperate; continental, cloudy with cold winters with frequent rain in the lowlands and snow in the mountains; cool summers with occasional showers. The terrain is mostly mountains with the Alps in the west and south; mostly flat, with gentle slopes along the eastern and northern margins. Natural resources are iron ore, crude oil, timber, magnesite, aluminium, lead, coal, lignite, copper and hydropower. The religion is 85% Roman Catholic, 6% Protestant and 9% other. The language - historically a cause of great controversy - is, since the break-up of the Austria-Hungarian empire German.

In 791 Charlemagne drove the Avars from the territory between the Ens and the Raab, and united it to his empire under the name of the Eastern Mark (that is March or boundary land); and from the establishment by him of a margraviate in this new province the present empire took its rise. On the invasion of Germany by the Hungarians it became subject to them from 900 until 955, when Otho I, by the victory of Augsburg, reunited a great part of this province to the German Empire, which by 1043 had extended its limits to the Leitha. The margraviate of Austria was hereditary in the family of the counts of Babenberg (Bamberg) from 982 until 1156, in which year the boundaries of Austria were extended so as to include the territory above the Ens, and the whole was created a duchy.

The territory was still further increased in 1192 by the gift of the duchy of Styria as a fief from the Emperor Henry VI, Vienna being by this time the capital. The male line of the house of Bamberg became extinct in 1246, and the Emperor Frederick II declared Austria and Styria a vacant fief, the hereditary property of the German emperors. In 1282 the Emperor Rudolph granted Austria, Styria, and Garinthia, to his two sons, Albert and Rudolph. The former became sole ruler (duke), and from then until the end of the Great War Austria was under the reigning house of Hapsburg. Albert, who was an energetic ruler, was elected emperor in 1298, but was assassinated in 1308. The first of his successors worthy of mention was Albert V, son-in-law of the Emperor Sigismund. He assisted Sigismund in the Hussite wars, and was elected after his death King of Hungary and of Bohemia, and German emperor in 1438. Ladislaus, his posthumous son, was the last of the Austrian line proper, and its possessions devolved upon the collateral Styrian line in 1457; since which time the house of Austria furnished an unbroken succession of German emperors.

In 1458 the Emperor Frederick III, a member of this house, had conferred upon the country the rank of an archduchy before he himself became ruler of all Austria. His son Maximilian I, by his marriage with Mary, the surviving daughter of Charles the Bold, united the Netherlands to the Austrian dominions. After the death of his father in 1493 Maximilian was made Emperor of Germany, and transferred to his son Philip the government of the Netherlands. He also added to his paternal inheritance Tyrol, with several other territories, particularly some belonging to Bavaria, and acquired for his family new claims to Hungary and Bohemia. The marriage of his son Philip to Joanna of Spain raised the house of Hapsburg to the throne of Spain. Philip, however, died in 1506, and the death of Maximilian in 1519 was followed by the union of Spain and Austria; his grandson (the eldest son of Philip), Charles I, king of Spain, being elected Emperor of Germany as Charles V. Charles thus became the greatest monarch in Europe, but in 1521 he ceded to his brother Ferdinand all his dominions in Germany.

Ferdinand I, by his marriage with Anna, the sister of Louis II, king of Hungary, acquired the kingdoms of Hungary and Bohemia, with Moravia, Silesia, and Lusatia, the appendages of Bohemia. To oppose him the way-wode of Transylvania, John Zapolya, sought the help of the sultan, Soliman II, who appeared in 1529 at the gates of Vienna, but was compelled to retreat. In 1535 a treaty was made by which John von Zapolya was allowed to retain the royal title and half of Hungary, but after his death new disputes arose, and Ferdinand maintained the possession of Lower Hungary only by paying Soliman the sum of 30,000 ducats annually from 1562. In 1556 Ferdinand obtained the imperial crown, when his brother Charles laid by the sceptre for a cowl. He died in 1564, leaving his territories to be divided amongst his three sons.

Maximilian II, the eldest, succeeded his father as emperor, obtaining Austria, Hungary, and Bohemia; Ferdinand, the second son, received Tyrol and Hither Austria; and Charles, the youngest, obtained Styria, Carinthia, Carniola, and Gorz. Maximilian died in 1576, and was succeeded in the imperial throne by his eldest son Rudolph II, who had already been crowned King of Hungary in 1572, and King of Bohemia, in 1575. Rudolph's reign was distinguished by the war against Turkey and Transylvania; the persecutions of the Protestants, who were driven from his dominions; the cession of Hungary in 1608; and in 1611 of Bohemia and his hereditary estates in Austria to his brother Matthias. Matthias, who succeeded Maximilian on the imperial throne, concluded a peace with the Turks, but was disturbed by the Protestant Bohemians, who took up arms in defence of their religious rights, thus commencing the Thirty Years' War. After his death in 1619 the Bohemians refused to acknowledge his successor, Ferdinand II, until after the battle of Prague in 1620, when Bohemia had to submit, and was deprived of the right of choosing her king. Lutheranism was strictly forbidden in all the Austrian dominions.

Hungary, which revolted under Bethlem Gabor, prince of Transylvania, was, after a long struggle, subdued. During the reign of Ferdinand III (1637-1657), successor of Ferdinand IL Austria was continually the theatre of war;
Lusatia was ceded to Saxony in 1635; and Alsace to France in 1648, when peace was restored in Germany by the Treaty of Westphalia.

The Emperor Leopold I, son and successor of Ferdinand III, was victorious through the talents of Eugene in two wars with Turkey; and Vienna was delivered by Sobieski and the Germans from the attacks of Kara Mustapha in 1683. In 1687 he united Hungary to Transylvania, and in 1699 restored to Hungary the country lying between the Danube and the Theiss. It was the chief aim of Leopold to secure to Charles, his second son, the inheritance of the Spanish monarchy, and in 1701, upon the victory of French diplomacy in the appointment of the grandson of Louis XIV, the war of the Spanish succession commenced. Leopold died in 1705, but Joseph I, his eldest son, continued the war. As he died without children in 1711, his brother Charles was elected emperor, but was obliged to accede in 1714 to the Peace of Utrecht, by which Austria received the Netherlands, Milan, Mantua, Naples, and Sardinia. In 1720 Sicily was given to Austria in exchange for Sardinia. This monarchy now embraced over 190,000 square miles; but its power was weakened by new wars with Spain and France. In the peace concluded at Vienna (1735 and 1738) Charles VI was forced to cede Naples and Sicily to Spain and part of Milan to the King of Sardinia; and in 1739, by the Peace of Belgrade, he was obliged to transfer to the Porte Belgrade, Serbia, etc, partly in order to secure the succession to his daughter Maria Theresa by the Pragmatic Sanction. He died in 1740.

On the marriage of Maria Theresa with Stephen, duke of Lorraine (the dynasty henceforth being that of Hapsburg-Lorraine), and her accession to the Austrian throne, the empire was threatened with dismemberment. Frederick II of Prussia subdued Silesia; the Elector of Bavaria was crowned in Lintz and Prague, and in 1742 chosen emperor under the name of Charles VII; Hungary alone supported the heroic and beautiful queen. Charles, however, died in 1745, and the husband of Theresa was crowned Emperor of Germany as Francis I; but a treaty concluded in 1745 confirmed to Frederick the possession of Silesia, and by the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, 1748, Austria was obliged to cede the duchies of Parma, Piacenza, and Guastalla to Philip, Infant of Spain, and several districts of Milan to Sardinia. To recover Silesia Maria Theresa formed an alliance with France, Russia, Saxony, and Sweden, and entered upon the Seven Years' War; but by the Peace of Hubertsberg, 1763, Silesia was recognized as Prussian territory.

On the death of Francis I in 1765 Joseph II, his eldest son, was appointed to assist his mother in the government and elected Emperor of Germany. The partition of Poland in 1772 gave Galicia and Lodomeria to Austria, which also obtained Bukowina from the Porte in 1777. At the death of the empress in 1780 Austria contained 235,000 square miles, with a pop. estimated at 24,000,000.

The liberal home administration of the empress was continued and extended by her successor, Joseph II, who did much to further the spread of religious tolerance, education, and the industrial arts. The Low Countries, however, revolted, and he was unsuccessful in the war of 1788 against the Porte. His death took place in 1790. He was succeeded by his eldest brother, Leopold II, under whom peace was restored in the Netherlands, and in Hungary, and also with the Porte. On the death of his sister and her husband Louis XVI of France he formed an alliance with Prussia, but died in 1792, before the French revolutionary war broke out.

His son, Francis II, succeeded, and was elected German emperor, by which time France had declared war against him as King of Hungary and Bohemia. In 1795, in the third division of Poland, West Galicia fell to Austria, and by the Peace of Campo-Formio in 1797 she received the largest part of the Venetian territory as compensation for her loss of Lombardy and the Netherlands. In 1799 Francis, in alliance with Russia, renewed the war with France until 1801, when the Peace of Luneville was concluded. In 1804 Francis declared himself hereditary Emperor of Austria as Francis I, and united all his states under the name of the Empire of Austria, immediately taking up arms once more with his allies Russia and Great Britain against France. The war of 1805 was terminated by the Peace of Pressburg on December the 26th, by which Francis had to cede to France the remaining provinces of Italy, as well as to give up portions of territory to Bavaria, Wtirtemberg, and Baden, receiving in return Salzburg and Berchtesgaden. After the formation of the Confederation of the Rhine on July the 12th 1806 Francis was forced to resign his dignity as Emperor of Germany, which had been in his family more than 500 years. A new war with France in 1809 cost the monarchy 42,380 square miles of territory and 3,500,000 subjects. Napoleon married Maria Louisa, daughter of the emperor, and in 1812 concluded an alliance with him against Russia. But in 1813 Francis again declared war against France, and formed an alliance with Britain, Russia, Prussia, and Sweden against his son-in-law. By the Congress of Vienna (1815) Austria gained Lombardy and Venetia, and recovered, together with Dalmatia, the hereditary territories which it had been obliged to cede.

In the troubled period following the French revolution of 1830 insurrections took place in Modena, Parma, and the Papal States (1831-1832), but were suppressed without much difficulty; and though professedly neutral during the Polish insurrections Austria clearly showed herself on the side of Russia, with whom her relations became more intimate as those between Great Britain and France grew more cordial. The death of Francis I in 1835 and accession of his son Ferdinand I made little change in the Austrian system of government, and much discontent was the consequence. In 1846 the failure of the Polish insurrection led to the incorporation of Cracow with Austria. In Italy the declarations of Pio Nono in favour of reform increased the difficulties of Austria, and in Hungary the opposition under Kossuth and others assumed the form of a great constitutional movement. In 1848, when the expulsion of Louis Philippe shook all Europe, Metternich found it impossible any longer to guide the helm of the state, and the government was compelled to admit a free press and the right of citizens to arms. Apart from the popular attitude in Italy and in Hungary, where the diet declared itself permanent under the presidency of Kossufch, the insurrection made equal progress in Vienna itself, and the royal family, no longer in safety, removed to Innsbruck. After various ministerial changes the emperor abdicated in favour of his nephew, Francis Joseph; more vigorous measures were adopted; and Austria, aided by Russia, reduced Hungary to submission.

The year 1855 is memorable for the Concordat with the pope, which put the educational and ecclesiastical affairs of the empire entirely into the hands of the Papal see. In 1859 the hostile intentions of France and Sardinia against the possessions of Austria in Italy became so evident that she declared war by sending an army across the Ticino; but after disastrous defeats at Magenta and Solferino she was compelled to cede Milan and the north-west portion of Lombardy to Sardinia. In 1864 she joined with the German states in the war against Denmark, but a dispute about Schleswig-Holstein involved her in a war with her allies (1866), while at the same time Italy renewed her attempts for the recovery of Venice. The Italians were defeated at Custozza and driven back across the Mincio; but the Prussians, victorious at Koniggratz (or Sadowa), threatened Vienna. Peace was concluded with Prussia on August the 23rd and with Italy on October the 8th, the result of the war being the cession of Venetia through France to Italy and the withdrawal of Austria from all interference in the affairs of Germany.

After 1866 Austria was occupied chiefly with the internal affairs of the empire. Hungarian demands for self-government were finally agreed to, and the Empire of Austria divided into the two parts: the Cisleithan and the Transleithan. This settlement was consummated by the coronation of the Emperor Francis Joseph I, at Budapest, as King of Hungary, on the 8th of June, 1867. In the same year the Concordat of 1855 came up for discussion, and measures were passed for the re-establishment of civil marriage, the emancipation of schools from the domination of the church, and the placing of different creeds on a footing of equality. The fact of the Austro-Hungarian dominions comprising so many different nationalities had always given the central government much trouble, both in regard to internal and to external affairs. In regard to the ' Eastern Question,' for instance, the action of Austria had been hampered by the sympathies shown by the Magyars for their blood relations, the Turks, while the Slavs naturally were more favourable to Russia. During the war between Russia and Turkey in 1877-78 Austria remained neutral; but at its close, in the middle of 1878, it was decided, at the Congress of Berlin, that the provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina should in future be administered by Austria-Hungary instead of Turkey.

Conflicts within the empire over the Balkan states led to the Great War, at the end of which many of the states declared their independence, and Austria became a smaller, independent republic itself. However, internal political divisions led to a civil war in 1934 in which the right-wing parties were victorious. Nazi supporters of the German leader, Adolf Hitler, made uprisings which were unsuccessful, and Hitler annexed Austria as part of the German Reich - though not without resistance from armed groups within Austria opposed to the Nazis. In 1945 with the end of the Second World War Austria became once more independent state.
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