Baptism (from the Greek baptizo, from bapto, to immerse or dip), is a rite which is generally thought to have been usual with the Jews even before Christ, being administered to proselytes. From this baptism, however, that of St John the Baptist differed, because he baptized Jews also as a symbol of the necessity of perfect purification from sin. Christ himself never baptizedy, but directed his disciples to administer this rite to converts; and baptism, therefore, became a religious ceremony among Christians, taking rank as a sacrament with all sects which acknowledge sacraments.
In the primitive church the person to be baptized was dipped in a river or in a vessel, with the words which Christ had ordered, generally adopting a new name to further express the change. Sprinkling, or, as it was termed, clinic baptism, was used only in the case of the sick who could not leave their beds. The Greek Church and Eastern schismatics retained the custom of immersion; but the Western Church adopted or allowed the mode of baptism by pouring or sprinkling, since continued by most Protestants. This practice can be traced back certainly to the third century, before which its existence is disputed.
Since the Reformation there have been various Protestant sects called Baptists, holding that baptism should be administered only by immersion, and to those who can make a personal profession of faith. The Montanists in Africa baptized even the dead, and in Roman Catholic countries the practice of baptizing church-bells - a custom of tenth-century origin - continues to this day. Being an initiatory rite, baptism is only administered once to the same person. The Roman and Greek Catholics consecrate the water of baptism, but Protestants do not. The act of baptism is accompanied only with the formula that the person is baptized in the name of the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost; but, among most Christians, it is preceded by a confession of faith made by the person to be baptized if an adult, and by his parents or sponsors if he be a child. The Roman Catholic form of baptism is far more elaborate than the Protestant. This church teaches that all persons not baptized are damned, even unbaptized infants are not admitted into heaven; but for those with whom the absence of baptism was the chief fault, even St. Augustine himself believed in a species of mitigated damnation. Protestants hold that though the neglect of the sacrament is a sin, yet the saving new birth may be found without the performance of the rite which symbolizes it. Naming the person baptized forms no essential part of the ceremony, but has become almost universal, probably from the ancient custom of renaming the catechumen. Research Baptism
The Cowper-Temple Clause was a clause inserted in the English Education Act of 1870, on an amendment by Mr. Cowper-Temple (afterwards Lord Mount-Temple) to exclude from all rate-built schools every catechism and formula distinctive of any denominational creed. Research Cowper-Temple Clause
Dei gratia ('by the grace of God'), is a formula which sovereigns add to their title. The expression is taken from several apostolical expressions in the New Testament. Research Dei Gratia
In Judaism, Kiddush is a prayer recited on the Sabbath, at festivals, and the New Year, acknowledging the sanctity of the holy day and concluding with the formula, 'Praised be Thou, O Lord, who sanctifies the Sabbath, ' or 'who sanctifies Israel and the festivals.' Before a festive meal on the eve of the Sabbath or holiday, the Kiddush is recited over a cup of wine by the head of the household. It includes the customary blessing over the wine and is accompanied by biblical verses. The wine benediction and biblical verses are also recited before the large first meal on the morning of the Sabbath or festival. No food can be eaten before the Kiddush is recited. It is also traditional to recite the Kiddush in the synagogue at the conclusion of the evening and morning services. This custom originally was instituted for the benefit of travellers who might be lodging and eating at the synagogue over the Sabbath or festival. Research Kiddush
Lotus was a motorcar company founded in 1952 by Colin Chapman, who built his first racing car in 1948, and also developed high-powered production saloon and innovative sports cars, such as the Lotus-Cortina and Lotus Elan. Lotus has been one of the leading Grand Prix manufacturers since they entered Formula One 1960. Jim Clark, twice world champion, had all his Grand Prix wins in a Lotus. The last Lotus world champion was Mario Andretti in 1978. After Colin Chapman's death, the company won some Grand Prix with Ayrton Senna. Without Chapman's innovative direction, the team never regained its momentum, and after a series of management changes the directors Peter Collins and Peter Wright made heroic efforts to keep the team going until the end of the 1994 season, when underfunding and debts forced it into administratorship. David Hunt, brother of James Hunt, bought the company from the administrator and tried, unsuccessfully, to find sponsors to enable Lotus to continue and develop a new race car. In January 1995 a world famous name in motor racing ceased to exist. Research Lotus
Danica Sue Patrick is an American racing driver. She was born in 1982 at Beloit, Wisconsin. She is known for driving for Rahal-Letterman racing in the American Indy Racing League. In 2000 she finished second in the Formula Ford festival and was fourth in the 2005 Indianapolis 500 auto race. Research Danica Patrick
Isidore Augusts Marie Francois Xavier Comte was a French philosopher. He was born in 1798 at Montpellier and died in 1857. His family were zealous Catholics and royalists and he was educated at the Ecole Polytechnique, and embraced enthusiastically the socialist tenets of St Simon. As one of his most distinguished pupils he was employed, in 1820, to draw up a formula of the doctrines professed by the St Simonian school, which he accordingly accomplished in his Systeme de Politique Positive (founding the 'positive' system of philosophy). This work did not, however, meet with the approbation of St Simon, who asserted that Comte had made a very important omission by overlooking the religious or sentimental part of human nature.
In 1826 Comte commenced a course of lectures on positive philosophy, but only four lectures were given when he became allegedly deranged in mind, and did not recover until the end of 1827. In 1830 he commenced the publication of his Cours de Philosophie Positive, which was completed in six volumes in 1842, and was freely translated into English and condensed by Harriet Martineau in two volums in 1853.
Some aspersions on his superiors at the Ecole Polytechnique, where he held the posts of teacher and examiner, cost him his job and he was sacked, and some English friends subscribed a temporary subsidy; and at a later period Monsieur Littre organized a general subsidy, which afforded him a moderate degree of comfort in his later years. In 1845 he made the acquaintance of Clotilde de Vaux, who seems to have inspired him with a depth and tenderness of moral and aesthetic feeling before unknown in him. This appears in his second great work, Positive Polity (1851-1854); the Positivist Catechism (1852); and his last work, Subjective Synthesis (1855). In his Religion of Humanity he himself assumed the office of high-priest, performing marriage and funeral rites on behalf of the disciples who had been induced to adopt his system. These, however, were never very numerous; and as a practical faith his system never took off, though as a philosophy of knowledge it was widely accepted. Research Isidore Comte
John Elert Bode was a German astronomer. He was born in 1747 and died in 1826. His name is given to Bode's Law, an arithmeticformula which expresses approximately the distances of the planets from the sun. His best works are his Astronomical Almanac and his large Celestial Atlas (Himmelsatlas), giving a catalogue of 17,240 stars (12,000 more than in any former chart). Research John Bode
Niels Henrik Abel was a Norwegian mathematician. He was born in 1802 at Finnoy and died in 1829. In 1823 he proved that there is no algebraic formula for the solution of a general polynomial equation of the fifth degree, a formulae which had been sought for the previous three hundred years. Research Niels Abel
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Abbreviations
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