Pressing to death or peine forte et dure, was a form of execution (though actually torture) employed in Britain during the 17th and 18th centuries for those accused of a crime who refused to plead in court. The victim was stripped naked except for his underpants, and tied to the floor spread-eagle before having as much stone or lead as he could bear being laid on his body. Each day the victim was given three morsels of barleybread, and every third day also kennel water to drink. This continued until the victim was dead. Sometimes a piece of sharp timber was placed under the victim' s back to hasten death. In 1726, a murderer, Burnworth, endured a pressure of nearly four hundredweights for one and three quarter hours before begging for mercy. he was subsequently tried, found guilty and hanged. Research Pressing to Death
Adrien Francois Boieldieu was a French composer. He was born in 1775 at Rouen and died in 1834 of pulmonary disease. He early displayed great musical talent, his first opera, La Famille Suisse, being well received in 1795 at Rouen. In 1795 he repaired to Paris, and rose rapidly in reputation, producing several operas, of which the best was Le Calife de Baghdad (1799). Domestic difficulties drove him in 1802 to Russia, where he became musical director to the emperor.
On his return to Paris in 1811 he produced, among other works, his two masterpieces, Jean de Paris (1812) and La Dame Blanche (1825), which place him in the first rank of composers of French comic opera. For some years he was professor of composition and the piano-forte at the Conservatoire. Research Adrien Boieldieu
The Cistercians are a religious order named from its original convent, Citteaux (Cistercium), not far from Dijon, in Eastern France,
where the society was formed in 1098 by Robert, abbot of Molesme, under the strictest observance of the rule of St Benedict. The Cistercians led a severely ascetic and contemplative life, and having freed themselves from episcopal supervision, formed a kind of spiritual republic under a high council of twenty-five members, with the abbot of Citeaux as president. Next to Citeaux the four chief monasteries were La Forte, Pontigny, Clairvaux (founded by the celebrated St Bernard in 1115), and Morimond. In France they called themselves Bernardines in honour of St Bernard. Among the fraternities emanating from. them the most remarkable were the Barefooted monks, or Feuillants, and the nuns of Port Royal, in France; the Recollets, or reformed Cistercians; and the monks of La Trappe. There were a hundred Cistercian houses in England at the dissolution of monasteries. The general fate of religious orders during the French revolution reduced the Cistercians to a few convents in Spain, Poland, Austria, etc. There are still two or three houses in the British Isles. The Cistercians wear white robes with black scapularies. Research Cistercians
Wallace Beery was an American actor. He was born in 1880 at Kansas City and died in 1949. A graduate of Kansas City High School, he began his theatrical career as an assistant elephant trainer for the Ringling Brothers Circus at the start of the 20th century. A few years later he was on the stage where, despite his large features his forte was as a female impersonator, and in vaudeville he sang in variety shows, stock companies and Broadway musicals. His film career began at the Essanay Studios in 1914 and he starred in a series of some 30 comedies about a character named 'Sweedie' a preposterous female servant. During the 1920s he switched roles to play rugged, commanding figures. Research Wallace Beery
MF is an abbreviation for Medium Frequency
MF is an abbreviation for Middle French
MF is an abbreviation for Multi-Frequency
MF is an abbreviation for Mainframe
MF is an abbreviation for Mezzo Forte
MF is an abbreviation for Microfiche Research MF
PF is an abbreviation for French Polynesia
PF is an abbreviation for Pianoforte
PF is an abbreviation for PiuForte
PF is an abbreviation for Power Factor
PF is an abbreviation for Programmed Function
PF is an abbreviation for Protoflight
PF is an abbreviation for ParityFlag Research PF
F is an abbreviation for Fahrenheit
F is an abbreviation for Farad
F is an abbreviation for Filter
F is an abbreviation for Final
F is an abbreviation for Fluorine
F is an abbreviation for France
F is an abbreviation for Frequency
F is an abbreviation for Female
F is an abbreviation for Fellow
F is an abbreviation for Following
F is an abbreviation for Folio
F is an abbreviation for Franc
F is an abbreviation for Forte
Fencing is the art of attack and defence with sword or rapier, no shield being used. It was in Italy in the 16th century that the skilful use of the small sword first became common. The art spread to Spain and then to France, where, on account of the prevalence of duelling, it was brought to a high degree of development.
The small sword or rapier (which was adopted for duelling) has a point, but no edge, and therefore demands the highest degree of adroitness in its use. In the fencing schools the instrument adopted for exercise is called a foil; it has a guard of metal or leather between the handle and blade, which is made of pliant steel and has a button at the end in place of a point. The parries are made with the weapon itself by opposing the forte of the foil (i.e. the strong part from the handle to the centre) to the feeble of the adversary's foil (i.e. to the part from centre to point); the upper part of the body to the right is defended by the parry called tierce, the upper part to tho left by the carte, and the lower part by the seconde. In all parrying care must be taken that in covering the side attacked the other side is not too carelessly exposed to the enemy. After every parry a return should be made with rapidity and decision. The fencer should rely more upon his sword hand for protection than upon his agility of leg; yet he must be active on his legs so as to advance, retreat, or lunge with effect. The knees should therefore be somewhat bent when the fencer is on guard, that he may be light and elastic in his movements. An attack may be made by the mereextension of the arm, or accompanied by a lunge, that is, by advancing the body, stepping forward with the right foot without moving the left.
An engagement means the crossing of the blades; a disengagement, slipping your foil under the opponent's and then pressing in the opposite direction; riposte, the attack without pause by a fencer who has parried.
Fencing with the broadsword differs essentially from that with the foil, as the former has an edge as well as a point, and is therefore meant to cut as well as thrust. According to the instructions of drill-masters there are seven cuts, with corresponding guards, and three thrusts. Out one is a diagonal, downward cut at the left cheek of the adversary; cut three is delivered with an upward slope at the left leg, and cut five horizontally at the right side; cuts two, four, and six attack the right cheek, right side, and right leg respectively; and cut seven is directed vertically at the head. Guards one and two defend the upper portion of the body, the sword sloping upwards in an opposite direction to the opponent's; guards three and four protect the legs, the sword sloping downwards; guards five and six defend the sides, when the sword is held vertically, point downwards; and guard seven protects the head, the blade meeting the enemy's almost at a right angle.
Since the introduction of the bayonet, bayonet exercise has become an important department of fencing in the army. In handling the bayonet defensively the right foot is thrown back and receives most of the weight of the body, the knees are bent, the bayonet brought to a horizontal position level with the waist. This is the 'guard,' and according to the parry to be made the weapon is carried either to the 'high' position, pointing upwards from the breast, or to the 'low' position, pointing downwards from the breast. In taking the offensive the right leg is straightened, and the left bent forward, without moving the feet from their place. The butt of the rifle is pressed firmly to the shoulder and points straight forward. In 'shortening arms' the butt is carried back to the full extent of the right arm, while the barrel (turned downwards) rests upon the left arm. The body rests upon the right leg, which is slightly bent, while the left is somewhat advanced. Research Fencing
Abbreviations
Research Pressing to Death
