In its most popular usage, a flag is a piece of bunting, usually but not always, square or rectangular in shape, attached to a pole and used as a standard, ensign or signal for display or decoration, and to distinguish one company, party, or nationality from another. Formerly in Britain, a black flag was raised outside prisons to announce the execution of a prisoner. Traditionally in Britain, when in mourning flags are lowered to halfway down the pole and 'flown at half mast'.
In the army a flag is a banner by which one regiment is distinguished from another. Flags borne on the masts of vessels not only designate the country to which they belong, but also are made to denote the quality of the officer by whom a ship is commanded. Thus in the British navy an admiral's flag was displayed at the maintop-gallant-mast-head, a vice-admiral's at the foretop-gallant-mast-head, and a rear-admiral's at the mizzen-top-gallant-mast-head.
In the navy the supreme flag of Great Britain is the royal standard, which is only to be hoisted when the sovereign or one of the royal family is on board the vessel. All British ships of war in commission carry the white ensign, that is a white flag divided into four quarters by the red cross of St George and having the union flag (or union 'jack' as it is popularly called) in the upper corner next the staff.
British merchant ships are entitled to carry a red flag with the union in the corner. The union is the flag commonly used on shore as the national ensign. To lower or strike the flag is to pull it down, or take it in, out of respect or submission to superiors. To lower or strike the flag in an engagement is a sign of yielding. A sign of mourning is to hoist the flags at a half or two-thirds of the height of the masts, if on land at half the height of the staff. Besides the use of flags as distinguishing emblems, a very important use of them at sea, both by national and mercantile navies, is as signals according to an arranged code. Research Flag
A tournament was originally an exhibition of combat between mounted men. Named from the tournament, or quick turning of the horses, it appeared in Europe in the 11th century, and quickly grew in popularity, both in France and England, where, in the reign of Henry II, it became necessary to prohibit tournaments owing to extravagant indulgence in them by the younger nobility. Later, tournaments were allowed to be held under royal licence, und a classic account of one in the time of Richard I is given in the book Ivanhoe, in which the customs and rules of such assemblies are graphically indicated. Froissart is also a mine of information regarding tournaments.
The essential feature of a tournament was the single combat of knight with knight, each striving to unhorse or incapacitate his opponent, the usual weapon being the lance. Sometimes, however, one body of knights fought against another body. They took place on most occasions of rejoicing.
Participation in tournaments was usually reserved for those of noble birth, and about the end of the 13th century a new set of rules was embodied in a statute of arms for tournaments, which laid down, among other provisions, that disputes arising out of a tournament were to be settled by a court of honour composed of princes and earls. By the 16th century the tournament had degenerated until it was merely a form of pageant. The term is now applied to many kinds of athletic contests.
In the 18th century novel Ivanhoe, the author, Walter Scott describes the arena and audience of a fictional 12th century tournament as follows:
On the verge of a wood, which approached to within a mile of the town of Ashby, was an extensive meadow, of the finest and most beautiful green turf, surrounded on one side by the forest, and fringed on the other by straggling oak-trees, some of which had grown to an immense size. The ground, as if fashioned on purpose for the martial display which was intended, sloped gradually down on all sides to a level bottom, which was enclosed for the lists with strong palisades, forming a space of a quarter of a mile in length, and about half as broad. The form of the enclosure was an oblong square, save that the corners were considerably rounded off, in order to afford more convenience for the spectators. The openings for the entry of the combatants were at the northern and southern extremities of the lists, accessible by strong wooden gates, each wide enough to admit two horsemen riding abreast. At each of these portals were stationed two heralds, attended by six trumpets, as many pursuivants, and a strong body of men-at-arms for maintaining order, and ascertaining the quality of the knights who proposed to engage in this martial game.
On a platform beyond the southern entrance, formed by a natural elevation of the ground, were pitched five magnificent pavilions, adorned with pennons of russet and black, the chosen colours of the five knights challengers. The cords of the tents were of the same colour. Before each pavilion was suspended the shield of the knight by whom it was occupied, and beside it stood his squire, quaintly disguised as a salvage or silvan man, or in some other fantastic dress, according to the taste of his master, and the character he was pleased to assume during the game. The central pavilion, as the place of honour, had been assigned to Brian be Bois-Guilbert, whose renown in all games of chivalry, no less than his connexions with the knights who had undertaken this Passage of Arms, had occasioned him to be eagerly received into the company of the challengers, and even adopted as their chief and leader, though he had so recently joined them. On one side of his tent were pitched those of Reginald Front-de-Boeuf and Richard de Malvoisin, and on the other was the pavilion of Hugh de Grantmesnil, a noble baron in the vicinity, whose ancestor had been Lord High Steward of England in the time of the Conqueror, and his son WilliamRufus. Ralph de Vipont, a knight of St John of Jerusalem, who had some ancient possessions at a place called Heather, near Ashby-de-la-Zouche, occupied the fifth pavilion. From the entrance into the lists, a gently sloping passage, ten yards in breadth, led up to the platform on which the tents were pitched. It was strongly secured by a palisade on each side, as was the esplanade in front of the pavilions, and the whole was guarded by men-at-arms. The northern access to the lists terminated in a similar entrance of thirty feet in breadth, at the extremity of which was a large enclosed space for such knights as might be disposed to enter the lists with the challengers, behind which were placed tents containing refreshments of every kind for their
tion, with armourers, tarriers, and other attendants, in readiness to give their services wherever they might be necessary.
The exterior of the lists was in part occupied by temporary galleries, spread with tapestry and carpets, and accommodated with cushions for the convenience of those ladies and nobles who were expected to attend the tournament. A narrow space, betwixt these galleries and the lists, gave accommodation for yeomanry and spectators of a better degree than the mere vulgar, and might be compared to the pit of a theatre. The promiscuous multitude arranged themselves upon large banks of turf prepared for the purpose, which, aided by the natural elevation of the ground, enabled them to overlook the galleries, and obtain a fair view into the lists. Besides the accommodation which these stations afforded, many hundreds had perched themselves on the branches of the trees which surrounded the meadow; and even the steeple of a country church, at some distance, was crowded with spectators.
It only remains to notice respecting the general arrangement, that one gallery in the very centre of the eastern side of the lists, and consequently exactly opposite to the spot where the shock of the combat was to take place, was raised higher than the others, more richly decorated, and graced by a sort of throne and canopy, on which the royal arms were emblazoned. Squires, pages, and yeomen in rich liveries, waited around this place of honour, which was designed for Prince John and his attendants. Opposite to this royal gallery was another, elevated to the same height, on the western side of the lists; and more gaily, if less sumptuously decorated, than that destined for the Prince himself. A train of pages and of young maidens, the most beautiful who could be selected, gaily dressed in fancy habits of green and pink, surrounded a throne decorated in the same colours. Among pennons and flags bearing wounded hearts, burning hearts, bleeding hearts, bows and quivers, and all the commonplace emblems of the triumphs of Cupid, a blazoned inscription informed the spectators, that this seat of honour was designed for 'La Royne de las Beaulte et des Amours'. But who was to represent the Queen of Beauty and of Love on the present occasion no one was prepared to guess.
Meanwhile, spectators of every description thronged forward to occupy their respective stations, and not without many quarrels concerning those which they were entitled to hold. Some of these were settled by the men-at-arms with brief ceremony; the shafts of their battle-axes, and pummels of their swords, being readily employed as arguments to convince the more refractory. Others, which involved the rival claims of more elevated persons, were determined by the heralds, or by the two marshals of the field, William de Wyvil, and Stephen de Martival, who, armed at all points, rode up and down the lists to enforce and preserve good order among the spectators.
Gradually the galleries became filled with knights and nobles, in their robes of peace, whose long and rich-tinted mantles were contrasted with the gayer and more splendid habits of the ladies, who, in a greater proportion than even the men themselves, thronged to witness a sport, which one would have thought too bloody and dangerous to afford their sex much pleasure. The lower and interior space was soon filled by substantial yeomen and burghers, and such of the lesser gentry, as, from modesty, poverty, or dubious title, durst not assume any higher place. It was of course amongst these that the most frequent disputes for precedence occurred.
Walter Scott goes on to describe the rules of the tournament, which he says were imparted to the audience by the monarch:
First, the five challengers were to undertake all comers.
Secondly, any knight proposing to combat, might, if he pleased, select a special antagonist from among the challengers, by touching his shield. If he did so with the reverse of his lance, the trial of skill was made with what were called the arms of courtesy, that is, with lances at whose extremity a piece of round flat board was fixed, so that no danger was encountered, save from the shock of the horses and riders. But if the shield was touched with the sharp end of the lance, the combat was understood to be at 'outrance', that is, the knights were to fight with sharp weapons, as in actual battle.
Thirdly, when the knights present had accomplished their vow, by each of them breaking five lances, the Prince was to declare the victor in the first day's tourney, who should receive as prize a warhorse of exquisite beauty and matchless strength; and in addition to this reward of valour, it was now declared, he should have the peculiar honour of naming the Queen of Love and Beauty, by whom the prize should be given on the ensuing day.
Fourthly, it was announced, that, on the second day, there should be a general tournament, in which all the knights present, who were desirous to win praise, might take part; and being divided into two bands of equal numbers, might fight it out manfully, until the signal was given by Prince John to cease the combat. The elected Queen of Love and Beauty was then to crown the knight whom the Prince should adjudge to have borne himself best in this second day, with a coronet composed of thin gold plate, cut into the shape of a laurel crown. On this second day the knightly games ceased. But on that which was to follow, feats of archery, of bull-baiting, and other popular amusements, were to be practised, for the more immediate amusement of the populace.
At the flourish of clarions and trumpets, they started out against each other at full gallop; and such was the superior dexterity or good fortune of the challengers, that those opposed to Bois-Guilbert, Malvoisin, and Front-de-Boeuf, rolled on the ground. The antagonist of Grantmesnil, instead of bearing his lance-point fair against the crest or the shield of his enemy, swerved so much from the direct line as to break the weapon athwart the person of his opponent - a circumstance which was accounted more disgraceful than that of being actually unhorsed; because the latter might happen from accident, whereas the former evinced awkwardness and want of management of the weapon and of the horse. The fifth knight alone maintained the honour of his party, and parted fairly with the Knight of St John, both splintering their lances without advantage on either side.
The shouts of the multitude, together with the acclamations of the heralds, and the clangour of the trumpets, announced the triumph of the victors and the defeat of the vanquished. The former retreated to their pavilions, and the latter, gathering themselves up as they could, withdrew from the lists in disgrace and dejection, to agree with their victors concerning the redemption of their arms and their horses, which, according to the laws of the tournament, they had forfeited. The fifth of their number alone tarried in the lists long enough to be greeted by the applauses of the spectators, amongst whom he retreated, to the aggravation, doubtless, of his companions' mortification.
During intervals of the tournament it appears that heralds inspired the contestants and audience by announcements and chants inspiring chivalry and bravery such as:
'Love of ladies, splintering of lances! stand forth gallant knights, fair eyes look upon your deeds!' Research Tournament
The gallant soldier or Joey Hooker (Galinsoga parviflora)is a South American plant of the family Compositae widely distributed as a weed, having small daisy-like flowers surrounded by silvery scales. Research Gallant Soldier
An admiral is the commander-in-chief of a squadron or fleet of ships of war, or of the entire naval force of a country, or simply a naval officer of the highest rank. In the British navy admirals are of four ranks: admiral of the fleet, admiral, vice-admiral, and rear-admiral. They were also divided formerly into three classes, named after the colours of their respective flag's, admirals of the red, of the white, and of the blue. In 1864, however, this distinction was given up, and now there is one flag common to all ships of war, namely, the white ensign divided into four quarters by the cross of St George, and having the union in the upper corner next the staff.
The title admiral of the fleet is conferred on a few admirals, and carries an increase of pay along with it. A vice-admiral is next in rank and command to the admiral: he carries his flag at the foretop-gallant-mast head, while an admiral carries his at the main. A rear-admiral, next in rank to the vice-admiral, carries his flag at the mizzentop-gallant-mast head.
In Great Britain the titleLord high admiral is an officer who (when this rare dignity is conferred) is at the head of the naval administration of Great Britain. There have been few high admirals since 1632, when the office was first put in commission. James Duke of York (afterwards James II) held it for several years during Charles II's reign. In the reign of William and Mary it was vested in lords commissioners of the admiralty, and since that time it has been held for short periods only by Prince George of Denmark in the time of Queen Anne, and by William IV, then Duke of Clarence, in 1827 to 1828.
Daniel H Hill was an American soldier. He was born in 1821 at South Carolina and died in 1889. He graduated from West Point in 1842. He was brevetted major for gallant service at Chapultepec during the Mexican War. He enlisted in the Confederate service in 1861, gained a victory at Big Bethel, and was promoted major-general in 1862. He gained distinction,in the Seven Days battles about Richmond and at Boonesboro and Fredericksburg. He commanded in North Carolina and at Richmond and Petersburg. He was engaged at Chickamauga, and surrendered in 1865. Research Daniel Hill
Earl Van Dorn was an American soldier/ he was born in 1820 and died in 1863. He was promoted for gallant service at Cerro Gordo, Contreras and Churubusco, and aided in the capture of the City of Mexico. In 1856 he commanded an expedition against the Comanches. In 1861 he joined the Confederacy and succeeded Jefferson Davis as major-general of the Mississippi forces. He captured the steamer 'Star of the West', and received the surrender of Major Sibley and ColonelReeve. In 1863 he commanded the trans-Mississippi Department. He was defeated at Pea Ridge and Corinth. He captured valuable stores at Holly Springs in 1862. Research Earl Van Dorn
John Bell Hood was an American soldier. He was born in 1831 at Kentucky and died in 1879. He graduated at the US Military Academy in 1853. He enlisted in the Confederate service in 1861, and soon after was appointed brigadier-general of the Texasbrigade. He was brevetted major-general for gallant service at Games' Mill. He served in the Marylandcampaign and fought at Bull Run, Boonsboro, Fredericksburg, Antietam and Gettysburg. He reinforced General Bragg at Chickamauga, and in 1864 commanded a corps under General Johnston. He succeeded Johnston in command and attempted to crush Sherman in his march to the sea, but was unsuccessful. He was soon afterward defeated by General Thomas at Franklin and at Nashville. He was succeeded by General Richard Taylor. Research John Bell Hood
John Dryden was a British poet. He was born in 1631 at Aldwinkle All-Saints, Northamptonshire and died in 1700. He was was descended from an ancient family, his grandfather being Sir Erasmus Dryden of Canons Ashby, Northamptonshire. He was admitted a king's scholar at Westminster under the celebrated Dr. Busby, whence he went to Trinity College, Cambridge, being here elected to a scholarship.
After university he appears to have settled at London in 1657, where he acted as secretary to his cousin Sir Gilbert Pickering, a favourite of Oliver Cromwell; and on the death of the Protector he wrote his Heroic Stanzas on that event. At the Restoration, however, he hailed the return of Charle II in Astraea Redux, and from that time his devotion to the Stuarts knew no decay.
In 1661 he produced his first play, The Duke of Guise; but the first that was performed was The Wild Gallant, which appeared in 1663 and was not a success. This was followed by The Rival Ladies, and The Indian Queen, a tragedy on Montezuma in heroic verse, written in collaboration with Sir Robert Howard, whose sister, Lady Elizabeth Howard, John Dryden married in 1663. He followed up The Indian Queen with The Indian Emperor, which at once raised John Dryden to the highest pitch of public estimation, an elevation which he retained until his death.
The great fire of London put a stop for some time to theatrical exhibitions. In the interval John Dryden published the Annus Mirabilis, an historical account of the events of the year 1666, one of the most elaborate of his productions. In 1668 he also published his celebrated Essay on Dramatic Poesy - the first attempt to regulate dramatic writing. In 1668 the Maiden Queen, a tragi-comedy, was represented. This was followed in 1670 by the Tempest, an alteration from William Shakespeare, in which he was assisted by Sir William Davenant. It was received with general applause, notwithstanding the very questionable taste and propriety of the added characters.
John Dryden was shortly afterwards appointed to the offices of royal historiographer and poet-laureate, with a salary of 200 pounds a year. He now became professionally a writer for the stage, and produced many pieces, some of which have been strongly censured for their licentiousness and want of good taste. The first of his political and poetical satires, Absalom and Achitophel (Monmouth and Shaftesbury), was produced in 1681, and was followed by The Medal, a satire against sedition; and MacFlecknoe, a satire on the poet Shadwell.
On the accession of James in 1685 John Dryden became a Roman Catholic, a conversion the sincerity of which has been not unreasonably regarded with suspicion, considering the time at which it occurred. At court the new convert was received with open arms, a considerable addition was made to his pension, and he defended his new religion at the expense of the old one in a poem, The Hind and the Panther. Among his other services to the new king were a savage reply to an attack by Stillingfleet, and panegyrics on Charles and James under the title of Britannia Rediviva.
At the Revolution John Dryden was deprived of the offices of poet-laureate and historiographer, and of the certain income which these offices secured him. During the remaining ten years of his life he produced some of his best work, including his admirable translations from the classics. He published, in conjunction with Congreve, Creech, and others, a translation of Juvenal, and one of Persius entirely by himself. About a third part of Juvenal was translated by John Dryden, who wrote an essay on satire which was prefixed to the whole. His poetic translation of Virgil appeared in 1697, and, soon after that masterpiece of lyric poetry, Alexander's Feast, his Fables, etc.
He died on May the 1st, 1700, at the age of sixty-nine, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. John Dryden is unequalled as a satirist among English poets, and the best of his tragedies are unsurpassed by any since written. His poetry as a whole is more remarkable for vigour and energy than beauty, but he did much to improve English verse. He was also an admirableprosewriter. Personally he waa modest and kindly. The whole of his works, edited by Sir Walter Scott, were published in 1818 they were later re-published with additional notes, etc, by George Saintsbury. Research John Dryden
Joseph Hooker was an American soldier. He was born in 1814 at Massachusetts and died in 1879. Educated at West Point, he was brevetted lieutenant-colonel for his gallant service during the Mexican War from 1846 until 1848. He was appointed a brigadier-general of the National forces in 1861, and commanded a division in 1862 in the Army of the Potomac. He was brevetted major-general for services at Yorktown, Williamsburg and Malvern Hill. He had important commands at South Mountain, Antietam and Fredericksburg. In 1863 he succeeded Ambrose E. Burnside in command of the Army of the Potomac, and conducted the Battle of Chancellorsville, but, being unsuccessful, was soon after succeeded by General George Meade. He was assigned command in the Army of the Cumberland, and fought at Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge. He accompanied Sherman in his march through Georgia until the siege of Atlanta. He was brevetted major-general in the regular army in 1865, and retired in 1868. Research Joseph Hooker
Caius Julius (more popular known as Julius Caesar or Caesar) was a great Roman general, statesman, and historian. He was born in 100 BC and died in 44. He was the son of the praetor Caius Julius Caesar, and of Aurelia, a daughter of Aurelius Cotta. At the age of sixteen he lost his father, and shortly after he married Cornelia, the daughter of Lucius Cinna, the friend of Marius. This connection gave great offence to Sulla, the dictator, who proscribed him for refusing to put away his wife. His friends obtained his pardon with difficulty, and Caesar withdrew from Rome, and went to Asia, serving his first campaign under M. Minucius Thermus, the praetor in Asia.
On the death of Sulla, Caesar returned to Rome, where he distinguished himself as an orator. He afterwards visited Rhodes, when he was taken by pirates, and compelled to pay fifty talents for his release. To revenge himself, he fitted out some vessels at Miletus, overtook the pirates, made the greater number of them prisoners, and had them crucified before Pergamus. He now returned to Rome, where his eloquence and liberality made him very popular. He was pontifex maximus in 63 BC, praetor in 62 BC, and governor of Spain in 61 BC.
On his return to Rome, having united with Pompey and Marcus Crassus in the memorable coalition called 'the first triumvirate,' he became consul, and then obtained the government of Gaul with the command of four legions.
His military career was rapid and brilliant. He compelled the Helvetii, who had invaded Gaul, to retreat to their native country, subdued Ariovistus, who at the head of a German tribe had attempted to settle in the country of the AEdui, and conquered the Belgae. In nine years he reduced all Gaul, crossed the Rhine twice (in 55 BC and 53 BC), and twice passed over to Britain, defeated the gallant natives of this island in several battles, and compelled them to give him hostages.
The senate had continued his government in Gaul for another period of five years, while Pompey was to have the command of Spain, and Marcus Crassus that of Syria, Egypt, and Macedonia for five years also. But the death of Marcus Crassus in his campaign against the Parthians dissolved the triumvirate; and about the same time the friendship between Caesar and Pompey cooled. The senate, influenced by Pompey, ordered that Caesar should resign his offices and command within a certain time, or be proclaimed an enemy to the state, and appointed Pompey general of the army of the Republic. Upon this Csesar urged his soldiers to defend the honour of their leader, passed the Rubicon (in 49 BC), and made himself master of Italy without striking a blow, Pompey retiring into Greece. Caesar then levied an army with the treasures of the state, and hastened into Spain, which he reduced to submission without coming to a pitched battle with Pompey's generals.
He next conquered Massilia (now Marseilles), and returned to Rome, where he was appointed dictator. He then followed Pompey into Greece, and defeated him at Pharsalia, from which Pompey escaped only to be assassinated in Egypt. In Rome the senate and the people strove eagerly to gain the favour of the victor. They appointed him consul for five years, dictator for a year, and tribune of the people for life. When his dictatorship had expired he caused himself to be chosen consul again, and without changing the ancient forms of government, ruled with almost unlimited power. In 46 BC he crossed to Africa, defeated the Pompeians Scipio and Cato at Thapsus, and returning to Rome he was received with the most striking marks of honour. The term of his dictatorship was prolonged to ten years, the office of censor conferred on him alone; his person was declared inviolable, and his statue placed beside that of Jupiter in the capitol.
He soon after was honoured with four several triumphs, made perpetual dictator, and received the title of imperator with full powers of sovereignty. In February, 44, he declined the diadem which Antony publicly offered him, and next morning his statues were decked with diadems. His glory, however, was short lived, for a conspiracy was set on foot by his enemy Cassius, and joined by many of his own friends, including M. Brutus; and, notwithstanding dark hints had been given to him of his danger, he attended a meeting of the senate on 15th (ides) March, 44 BC, and fell beneath the daggers of the conspirators.
Of his writings, we still possess the history of his wars with the Gauls and with Pompey. Caesar was undoubtedly the foremost man of all this world, being great as a statesman, a general, an orator, a historian, and an architect and engineer, and his assassination was brought about more by jealousy and envy than by real patriotism. Research Julius Caesar
The Probert Encyclopaedia was designed, edited and programed by
Matt and Leela Probert
Abbreviations
Research Flag
