The ISO (International Standards Organisation) assigns a two character code to each country name. These codes are used by Internet 'whois' databases (these two character abbreviations are the whois country codes) and also other applications.
In law, habeas corpus is a writ ordering a person to be brought before a court or judge. The term is particularly applied to a writ so issued so that the court may ascertain whether the person's detention is lawful. From the time of the Magna Charta imprisonment at the discretion of any person has been unlawful in England, but for long the royal prerogative was so indefinite and the power of the crown so great that persons were frequently detained in custody at the discretion of the crown. It was not until the 17th century that the Habeas Corpus Act, passed in 1679 provided the great remedy for the violation of personal liberty by the writ of habeas corpus ad subjiciendum (that you have the body to answer).
The provisions of the act may be stated generally thus : 1. That on complaint or request in writing, by, or on behalf of, any person committed and charged with any crime (unless treason, felony, etc, expressed in the warrant), the lord-chancellor, or any of the judges shall award a habeas corpus for such prisoner, and shall discharge the party, if bailable, upon security being given to appear and answer to the accusation. 2. The writ shall be returned, and the prisoner brought up within a limited time, not exceeding twenty days. 3. No person once delivered by habeas corpus shall be recommitted for the same offence. 4. Every person committed for treason or felony may insist on being tried at the next assizes, or admitted to bail, and if not tried at the second assizes or sessions, he shall be discharged from the imprisonment. The writ may be applied for by persons confined in any part of England, or Jersey and Guernsey. As the writ originally had to do solely with crimes, the statute 56 George III. cap. c. was passed, which extended the writ to other than criminal cases.
The result was that no person could be illegally confined in England for any length of time, since some friend could always apply for a habeas corpus, which, on a good prima facie case, would be issued. If the party was confined under recognized authority, as a child by a parent, this fact had to be stated.
In times of great political excitement, and suspected treasonable conspiracies, the operation of the Habeas Corpus Act has been occasionally suspended, and during the early 21st century under the pretext of 'combatting terrorism' exceptions made to it. But such suspension does not enable any one to imprison without cause or valid pretext for so doing. It only prevents persons who are committed from being bailed, tried, or discharged during the suspension, leaving to the committing magistrate all the responsibility attending on illegal imprisonment.
In Scotland similar protection of the liberty of the subject was secured by the Wrongous Imprisonment Act of 1701. The English statute was copied in the United States without essential change.
In the United States habeas corpus was suspended on July the 5th, 1861. Attorney-GeneralBates gave an opinion in favour of the President's power to declare martial law and suspend the writ of habeas corpus. A special session of Congress approved this opinion. Thereafter many arbitrary arrests were made, arousing much indignation. On September the 24th, 1862, the suspension was made general by the President so far as it might affect persons arrested by military authority for disloyal practices. An act of Congress, on March the 3rd, 1863, again authorized the suspension of the writ by the President in cases of prisoners of war, deserters, those resisting drafts and offenders against the military or naval service. The arrest of Vallandigham, in Ohio, and of Milligan, in Indiana, caused great excitement. The case of the latter being brought before the Supreme Court of the Union, that body decided that Congress could not give to military commissions the power of trial and conviction, and that the suspension of the privilege of habeas corpus did not suspend the writ itself. In the case of the Ku-Klux rebellions there was a brief suspension of habeas corpus in 1871. Research Habeas Corpus
The abalone is the popular name for various species of the shell-fish of the Haliotidae family. They have a richly coloured shell yielding mother-of-pearl. This sort of Haliotis is also commonly called ear-shell, and in Guernsey the ormer. The abalone shell is found especially at Santa Barbara and other places on the southern Californian coast, and when polished makes a beautiful ornament. The mollusc itself is often eaten, and dried for consumption in China and Japan. Research Abalone
Amaryllidaceae is a family of monocotyledonous plants which are generally bulbous occasionally with a tall, cylindrical, woody stem (as in Agave); with a highly coloured flower, six stamens and an inferior three-celled ovary. They are native to Europe and most other warm parts of the world.
The order includes the snowdrop, the snow-flake, the daffodil, the belladonna-lily (belonging to the typical genus Amaryllis), the so-called Guernsey-lily (probably a native of Japan), the Brunsvigias, the blood-flowers (Haemanthus) of South Africa, different species of Narcissus, Agave (American aloe), etc. Many are highly prized in gardens and hothouses; the bulbs - of some are strongly poisonous. Research Amaryllidaceae
The Guernsey Lily (Nerine Sarniensis) is a beautiful plant with purple red flowers and native to South Africa. It is of the family Amaryllidaceae. It is called the Guernsey Lily because some of its bulbs were washed ashore in Guernsey from a ship wreck and took root. Research Guernsey Lily
Sir Edmund Andros was an English soldier and colonial Governor. He was born in 1637 at London and died in 1714. After being a soldier and bailiff of Guernsey he moved to a post as Governor of New York in 1674, holding the position until 1681. In 1680 he seized New Jersey. In 1686 James II appointed Sir Edmund Andros as Governor of the northern colonies, including New England and New York. The overthrow of James II led to the people of Boston deposing Sir Edmund Andros in 1689 and he was sent back to England. In 1692 he returned to America as Governor of Virginia, holding that post until 1698. Research Edmund Andros
Jeffrey Amherst was a British soldier. He was born in 1717 and died in 1797. He entered the Guards as an ensign in 1731 and in 1758 was made commander of an expedition against the French in Canada. Following success in Canada he was appointed governor-general of the British possessions in North America and in 1761 was knighted. In 1763 he returned to England and in 1770 was made governor of Guernsey, in 1772 a privy councillor and in 1776 was raised to the peerage as Lord Amherst of Montreal. In 1796 he was made a field-marshal. Research Jeffrey Amherst
Victor Marie Hugo was a French poet and novelist. He was born in 1802 at Besancon and died in 1885. His father having entered the service of Joseph Bonaparte, king of Italy, and afterwards of Spain, Victor's earlier years were partly spent in those countries, but in 1812 he went with his mother to Paris. At the age of twelve he was already writing verses, and in 1823 his first novel, Han d'lslande, appeared, followed in 1825 by Bug Jargal.
In 1828 a complete edition of his Odes et Ballades appeared. In these productions Victor Hugo's anti-classical tendencies in style and treatment of his subject had been very visible, but the appearance of his dramaCromwell in 1827, with its celebrated preface, gave the watchword to the anti-classical or romantic school. Cromwell was too long for representation, and it was only in 1830 that Hernani, over which the great contest between Classicists and Romantacists took place, was brought on the stage.
Other dramas followed: Marion Delorme (1831), Le Roi s'amuse (1832), Lucrece Borgia (1833), MarieTudor
(1833), Angelo (1835), Ruy Blas (1838), Les Bourgraves (1843). During those years he had also published a novel, Notre Dame de Paris (1830), and several volumes of poetry, Les Feuilles d'Automne (1831), Les Chants du Crepuscule (1835), Les Voix Interieures (1837), Les Rayons et Les Ombres (1840). The poetry of this period has a melody and grace superior perhaps to any that he afterwards wrote, but wants that deep and original sense of life which is characteristic of his later poems. During the same period he also wrote his critical essays on Mirabeau, Voltaire, and a number of articles for the Revue de Paris.
In 1841, after having been twice previously rejected, he was elected a member of the French Academy and shortly afterwards made a tour in the Rhineland, of which he wrote a brilliant and interesting account in Le Rhin, published in 1842. In 1845 he was made a peer of France by Louis Philippe.
The revolution of 1848 threw Victor Hugo into the thick of the political struggle. At first his votes were decidedly Conservative, but afterwards, whether from suspicion of Napoleon's designs or from other reasons, he became one of the chiefs of the democratic party. After the coup d'etat on December the 2nd, 1851, he was one of those who kept up the struggle in the streets against Napoleon to the last. He then fled to Brussels, where he published the first of his bitter satires on the founder of the Second Empire, Napoleon le Petit. In the following year (1853) the second, the famous volume of Les Chatiments, a wonderful mixture of satirical invective, lyrical passion and pathos appeared.
Victor Hugo now went to live in Jersey, was expelled along with the other French exiles in 1855 by the English government, and finally settled in Guernsey. It was in the comparative solitude and quietness of the Channel Islands that he wrote most of the great works of his later years, Les Contemplations (1856), La Legende des Siecles, 1st series (1859), Chansons des Rues et des Bois (1865), and his celebrated series of social novels, Les Miserables (1862), Les Travailleurs de la Mer (1866), and L'Homme qui Rit (1869).
In 1870, after the fall of the Empire, Victor Hugo returned to Paris, where he spent the remaining years of a remarkably vigorous old age in occasional attendances at the senate, and in adding to the already long list of his literary works. Amongst these latest productions may be mentioned Quatro-vingt-treize (1872), L' Art d'etre Grand-pere (1877), L'Histoire d'un Crime (1877), Le Pape (1878), La Pitie Supreme (1879), Religions et Religion (1880), Les Quatre Vents de l'Esprit (1881), La Legende des Siecles (last series 1883), Torquemada (1882). Research Victor Hugo
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