A colony is a settlement formed in one country by the inhabitants of another. Colonies may either be formed in dependence on the mother country or in independence. In the latter case the name of colony is retained only in a historical sense. Properly, perhaps, the term should be limited to a settlement which carries on a direct cultivation of the soil, as in the former British colonies of Canada and Australia in contrast to the former in Hindustan or Malta which were the mere superposition on the natives of a ruling race which took little or no part in the general industry of the country.
The motives which lead to the formation of colonies, and the manner of their formation, are various. Sometimes the ambition of extending territory and the desire of increasing wealth have been the chief impulses in colonization; but colonies became a necessity for the redundant population of European states in the 19th century.
Among ancient nations the principal promoters of colonization were the Phoenicians, the Greeks, and the Romans; the greatest colonizers in modern times have been the English and the Spaniards, next to whom may be reckoned the Portuguese, the Dutch, and the French. The Germans during the 19th century contributed largely to the tide of emigration, particularly in the direction of America;
but did little directly as colonizers.
The Phoenician colonies were partly caused by political dissensions and redundant population, but were chiefly commercial, serving as entrepots and ports of repair for Phoenician commerce along the coasts of Africa and Spain, in the latter of which they numbered, according to Strabo, more than two hundred. But it was in Africa that the most famous arose, Carthage, the greatest colonizing state of the ancient world.
The Greek colonies, which were widely spread in Asia Minor and the islands of the Mediterranean, the coasts of Macedonia and Thrace, in South Italy and Sicily, were commonly independent, and frequently soon surpassed the mother states in power and importance.
The colonies of Rome were chiefly military, and while the empire lasted were all in strict subordination to the central government. As the Roman power declined the remains of them amalgamated with the peoples among whom they were placed, thus forming in countries where they were sufficiently strong what are known as the Latin races, with languages (Spanish, Portuguese, French, and Italian) which are merely modifications of the old Roman tongue.
Before America and the way by sea to the East Indies were discovered, the only colonies belonging to European states were those of the Genoese, Pisans, and Venetians in the Levant and the Black Sea, flourishing establishments on which the mercantile greatness of Italy in those days was largely built.
The Portuguese were the first great colonizers among modern states. In 1419 they discovered Madeira, the Azores, and the Cape Verde Islands; the Congo and the Cape of Good Hope followed; and before the century was out Vasco de Gama had landed at Calicut on the Malabar coast of India. The first Portuguese colonies were garrisons along the coasts where they traded: Mozambique and Sofala on the east coast of Africa, Ormuz and Muscat in the Persian Gulf, Goa and Damao on the west coast of India. Colonies were established in Sri Lanka in 1505, in the Moluccas in 1510. Brazil was discovered in 1499, and this magnificent possession fell to Portugal, and was colonized about 1530. Bad government at home and the subjection of the country to Spain caused the loss of most of the Portuguese colonies.
Soon after the Portuguese the Spaniards commenced the work of colonization. In 1492 Columbus, on board of a Spanish vessel, discovered the island of San Salvador. Haiti, or San Domingo, Porto Rico, Jamaica, and Cuba were soon colonized, and before the middle of the 16th century Mexico, Ecuador, Venezuela, New Granada (Colombia), Peru, and Chili were subdued, and Spain took the first rank amongst the colonizing powers of Europe. But the Spaniards never really attempted to develop the industrial resources of the subject countries. The pursuit of mining for gold or silver occupied the colonists almost exclusively, and the enslaved natives were driven to work themselves to death in the mines. Cities were founded, at first along the coasts, for the sake of commerce and as military posts; afterwards also in the interior, in particular in the vicinity of the mines, as Vera Cruz, Cumana, Porto Bello, Carthagena, Valencia, Caracas; Acapuico and Panama, on the coast of the Pacific; Lima, Goncepcion, and Buenos Aires. The colonial intercourse with Spain was confined to the single port of Seville, afterwards to that of Cadiz, from which two squadrons started annually - the galleons, about twelve in number, for Porto Bello; and the fleet, of fifteen large vessels, for Vera Cruz. When the power of Spain declined, the colonies declared their independence, and thus were formed the republics of Mexico, Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chili, etc. Cuba, Porto Rico, and the Philippine Islands passed to the United States in 1898; the Caroline Islands, etc, were sold to Germany in 1899; and by 1900 hardly any colony remained to Spain.
The hate of Philip II, who prohibited Dutch vessels from the port of Lisbon, forced the Dutch to import directly from India or lose the large carrying trade they had acquired. Several companies were soon formed, and in 1602 they were united into one, the Dutch East India Company, with a monopoly of the East Indiatrade and sovereign powers over all conquests and colonies in India. The Dutch now rapidly deprived the Portuguese of nearly all their East Indian territories, settled a colony at the Cape of Good Hope in 1650, established a West India Company, made extensive conquests in Brazil between 1623 and 1660, which were soon lost, and more permanent ones on some of-the smaller West India Islands, as San Eustatia, Curacoa, Saba, etc. The growing power of the British and the loss of Holland's independence during the Napoleonic wars were heavy blows to the colonial power of the nation. But the Dutch still possesed numerous colonies in the East Indies at the start of the 20th century, among which the more important were Java, Sumatra, Dutch Borneo, the Molucca Islands, and part of New Guinea, also several small islands in the West Indies, and Surinam.
No colonizing power of Europe had a career of such uniform prosperity as Great Britain. The English attempts at colonization began nearly at the same time with the Dutch. After many fruitless attempts to find a north-east or north-west passage to the East Indies, English vessels found their way round the Cape of Good Hope to the East Indies in 1591. The East India Company was established in 1600. English commerce with India, however, was not at first important, and they possessed only single factories on the continent up until the beginning of the 18th century. The ruin of the Mogul Empire in India after the death of Aurengzebe in 1707 afforded the opportunity for the growth of British power, as the British and French were compelled to interfere in the contentions of the native princes and governors. The French appeared at first to maintain the superiority; but the British in turn got the upper hand, and the victory of Clive at Plassey in 1756 laid the foundation of an exclusive British sovereignty in India. By the middle of the next century the British territory embraced, with the exception of a few dependent states, nearly the whole of India, and this vast territory was still under the government of the East India Company - a mercantile company, controlled indeed by parliament, but exercising many of the most important functions of an independent sovereignty. On the suppression of the Indian mutiny in 1857-1858 the government of India was transferred to the crown by act of parliament in 1858.
The discoveries of the Cabots, following soon after the voyages of Columbus, gave the English crown a claim to North America, which, though allowed to lie dormant for nearly a century, was never relinquished, and which, in the reign of Elizabeth I, led to colonization on a large scale. Walter Raleigh's settlement on Roanoke Island (North Carolina) in 1585 failed to become permanent, but in 1607 the colonists sent out by the London Company to Chesapeake Bay founded Jamestown, on the James River, in Virginia. The next great settlement was that of the Pilgrim Fathers, who landed on the 21st of December 1620, in Massachusetts Bay. The colonization of New Hampshire, Maine, New Jersey, Connecticut and Rhode Island, soon followed. In the State of New York and the Hudson River Territory the British found the Dutch already in possession; but in 1664 they seized the colony of New Amsterdam by force, changing its name to New York in honour of James, Duke of York. Pennsylvania was founded by William Penn, and colonized with Quakers in 1682; Maryland in 1631 by a party from Virginia; Carolina in 1670 and Georgia in 1732 by colonies from England.
Colonies were early established in the West India Islands, including Barbados, half of St. Christopher's in 1625, and soon after many smaller islands. Newfoundland was taken possession of in 1583, colonized in 1621 and 1633. Canada was surrendered to Britain at the Peace of Paris in 1763. In 1764 began the disputes between Britain and its North American colonies, which terminated with the acknowledgment of the independence of the United States, Canada remaining a British dependency.
Australia was discovered in the beginning of the 17th century. The first Australasian settlements of Britain were penal colonies. New South Wales, discovered in 1770, was established as a penal colony in 1788; Tasmania (Van Diemen's Land), discovered by Tasman in 1642, followed in 1803; West Australia, also first used as a penal settlement, became a free colony in 1829; Victoria was colonized in 1835, and made an independent colony in 1851; South Australia was settled in 1836. In 1851 the discovery of gold in Victoria gave a great impetus to the Australian Colonies. Queensland was made a separate colony from N.ew South Wales in 1859. New Zealand, discovered by Tasman in 1642, began to be used for whale-fishery about 1790, was settled in 1839, and made a colony in 1840. In 1874 the Fiji Islands, and in 1884 part of New Guinea, were annexed as crown colonies. In South AfricaCape Colony, first settled by the Dutch in 1652, finally became a British colony in 1815. Natal followed in 1843. Later annexations were Bechuanaland in 1885, Zululand in 1887, Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) in 1888-89, and the Orange River Colony and Transvaal in 1900. In Western Africa were the colonies of the Gold Coast, Gambia, and SierraLeone - ancient possessions of the British crown; with Lagos and Nigeria acquired in 1885 and after. Other possessions were British East Africa (Kenya), with Uganda and Somaliland. Gibraltar was acquired in 1704, Malta in 1800.
According to their government relations with the crown the colonies were arranged under three heads: (1.) Crown colonies, in which the crown had the entire control of legislation, while the administration was carried on by public officers under the control of the home government. (2.) Colonies possessing representative institutions but not responsible government, in which the crown had no more than a veto on legislation, but the home government retained the control of public officers. (3.) Colonies possessing representative institutions and responsible government, in which the crown had only a veto on legislation, and the home government had no control over any officer except the governor. All colonies were, however, disabled from such acts of independent sovereignty as the initiative in war, alliances, and diplomacy generally.
France was somewhat late in establishing colonies. Between 1627 and 1636 the West Indian islands of St Christopher's, Guadeloupe, and Martinique were colonized by private persons. Champlain was the pioneer of the French in the exploration of the North American continent, and founded Quebec in 1608. Colbert purchased several West India islands, as Martinique, Guadeloupe, St Lucia, etc, and sent out colonists in 1664 to Cayenne. In 1670 the East India Company formed by Colbert founded Pondicherry, which became the capital of extensive possessions in the East Indies. At the beginning of the 18th century France had extensive settlements in Canada, Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland, the most flourishing of the West India islands, and she seemed to have a prosperous career before her in India. Ere long, however, the rival interests of British and French colonists brought about a conflict which terminated in the loss of Canada and other North American possessions, as well as many of the West India Islands, while the dominion of India passed into the hands of the British.
During the 19th century Germany made an effort to take rank as a colonial power, and acquired in Africa the territories of Damaraland, Great Nama Land, etc, on the south-west coast, north of Cape Colony; the Cameroons District; a large portion of territory formerly claimed by the Sultan of Zanzibar, extending inland to Victoria Nyanza, etc; also in the Pacific a portion of New Guinea, then subsequently called Kaiser Wilhelm's Land, the BismarckArchipelago, Marshall Islands, etc.
The ISO (International Standards Organisation) assigns a two character code to each country name. These codes are used by Internet 'whois' databases (these two character abbreviations are the whois country codes) and also other applications.
The agouta (Solenodon paradoxus) is an insectivorous mammal peculiar to Haiti. It is of the tanrec family and somewhat larger than a rat. It has the tail devoid of hair and covered with scales, the eyes small, and an elongated nose like the shrews. Another species {Solendon cubanus) is found in Cuba. Research Agouta
Firefly is a popular name for winged insects possessing much luminosity. Except the lantern-fly, the fireflies are all coleopterous, and are members of two nearly allied families, the Elateridae or skipjacks, and Lampyridae, to which the glowworm belongs. The British glow-wormhaa too little luminosity to entitle it to the name of firefly, but the Lampyris italica, and Lampyris corusca of Canada are allied to it. True fireflies are found only in the warmer regions of the earth. The Slater or Pyrophorus noctilucus of South America and the West Indies is one of the most brilliant, giving out its light from two eye-like tubercles on the thorax. Their light is so powerful that small print may be read by it, and in Haiti, Jamaica and elsewhere they are sometimes used to give light for domestic purposes, eight or ten confined in a phial emitting sufficient light to enable a person to write. Research Firefly
Buccaneer was a name derived from the Carib boucan, a place for smoking meat, first given to European settlers in Haiti or Hispaniola, whose business was to hunt wild cattle and swine and smoke their flesh. In an extended sense the name was applied to English and French adventurers, mostly seafaring people, who, combining for mutual defence against the arrogant pretensions of the Spaniards to the dominion of the whole of America, frequented the West Indies in the 17th century, acquired predatory and lawless habits, and became ultimately, in many cases, little better than pirates.
The earliest association of these adventurers began about 1625, but they afterwards became much more formidable, and continued to be a terror until the opening of the 18th century, inflicting heavy losses upon the shipping trade of Spain, and even attacking large towns. Among their chief leaders were Montbars (Il exterminador), Peter the Great of Dieppe, L'Olonnas, de Busco, Van Horn, and the WelshmanHenry Morgan, who, in 1670, marched across the isthmus, plundered Panama, and after being knighted by Charles II, became deputy-governor of Jamaica. The last great exploit of the buccaneers was the capture of Carthagena in 1697, after which they are lost sight of in the annals of vulgar piracy. Research Buccaneer
Christopher Columbus (real name Cristoforo Colombo, known in Spanish as Christoval Colon) was an Italian navigator. He was born in 1451 at Genoa and died in 1506. His father, Domenico Colombo, a poor wool-comber, gave him a careful education. He appears to have gone to sea at an early age and to have navigated all parts of the Mediterranean and some of the coasts beyond the Straits of Gibraltar. In 1470 we find him at Lisbon, where he married the daughter of Bartolommeo de Palestrello, a distinguished navigator. He had gradually come to the conclusion that there were unknown lands belonging to Eastern Asia separated from Europe by the Atlantic: whilst the Portuguese were seeking to reach India by a south-east course round Africa he was convinced that there must be a shorter way by the west. He applied in vain to Genoa for assistance, and equally fruitless were his endeavours to interest John II of Portugal in the enterprise. He then determined to apply to the Spanish court; and after many disappointments he induced Ferdinand and Isabella to equip and man three vessels for a voyage of discovery.
It was early in the morning of Friday, on the 3rd of August, 1492, that Christopher Columbus set sail from the port of Palos, and after sailing for two months the expedition narrowly escaped failure. The variation of the needle so alarmed the crews that they were on the point of breaking out into open mutiny, and he was obliged to promise that he would turn back if three more days brought no discovery. On the third day (the 12th of October 1492) the island of Guanahani or San Salvador was sighted, which Christopher Columbus believed to belong to Eastern Asia and to be connected with India - a belief which he carried with him to his grave. Hence the mistaken name of Indians applied to the natives of America, and that of West Indies applied to the group of islands of which Guanahani forms one.
On landing Christopher Columbus threw himself upon his knees and kissed the earth, returning thanks to God. The natives collected round him in silent astonishment, and his men, ashamed of their disobedience and distrust, threw themselves at his feet, begging his forgiveness. Christopher Columbus, drawing his sword, planted the royal standard, and in the name of his sovereigns took possession of the country, which, in memory of his preservation, he called San Salvador. He then sailed in search of other lands, and discovered Cuba, St Domingo, and some other of the West India islands. Being so far successful, he built a fort at Hispaniola, Haiti, left some of his men there, and set out on his return to Europe, where he was received with almost royal honours.
In 1493 he set out on his second great voyage from Cadiz, with three large ships of heavy burden and fourteen caravels, carrying 1500 men. He discovered .the island of Dominica, and afterwards Mariegalante, Guadeloupe, and Porto Rico, and at length arrived at Hispaniola. Finding the colony destroyed, he built a fortified town, which he called, in honour of the queen, Isabella. He then left the island in order to make new discoveries, visited Jamaica, and returning after a voyage of five months, worn down with fatigue, found to his great joy that his brother Bartolommeo had arrived at Isabella with provisions and other supplies for the colony.
Meanwhile a general dissatisfaction had broken out among his companions, who, instead of the expected treasures, had found hardships and labour. This and news of calumnies being set on foot against him at home induced him to return to Spain, where his presence, and probably also the treasure he brought, silenced his enemies.
In May, 1498, he sailed with six vessels on his third voyage. Three of his vessels he sent direct to Hispaniola; with the three others he took a more southerly direction, and having discovered Trinidad and the continent of America, returned to Hispaniola, His colony had now been removed from Isabella, according to his orders, to the other side of the island, and a new fortress erected called St Domingo. Christopher Columbus found the colony in a state of confusion, but soon restored tranquillity. His enemies, in the meantime, endeavoured to convince his sovereigns that his plan was to make himself independent, and Christopher Columbus was not only displaced, but Francisco de Bobadilla, a new governor who had come from Spain, even sent him to that country in chains.
On his arrival in 1500 orders were sent directing him to be set at liberty and inviting him to court, but for this injurious treatment he never got redress, though great promises were made. After some time he was able to set out on his fourth and last voyage, in 1502, in four slender vessels supplied by the court. In this expedition he was accompanied by his brother Bartolommeo and his son Hernando. He encountered every imaginable disaster from storms and shipwreck, and returned to Spain, sick and exhausted, in 1504. The death of the queen soon followed, and he urged in vain on Ferdinand the fulfilment of his promises; but after two years of illness, humiliations, and despondency, Christopher Columbus died at Valladolid. His remains were transported, according to his will, to St Domingo, but on the cession of Hispaniola to France they were removed to Havana in Cuba in 1796. In 1899 they were carried back to Spain. Research Christopher Columbus
Frederick Douglass was an American Negro abolitionist. He was born in 1817 at Maryland and died in 1895. He escaped from slavery in 1838 and was educated by WilliamLloyd Garrison and lectured for the Massachusetts Anti-Slavery Society in America from 1841 until 1845 and in Europe from 1845 until 1847. He edited an abolitionist newspaper. In 1871 he was commissioner for the District of Columbia, and in 1872 was Presidential elector-at-large for New York. He was US Marshal for the District of Columbia from 1876 to 1881, and Recorder of Deeds from 1881 until 1886. From 1889 to 1891 he was US Minister to Haiti. During the American Civil War he organised two regiments of Massachusetts blacks, before writing his autobiography in 1882. Research Frederick Douglass
Henri Christophe was King of Haiti. He was born in 1767 in the West Indies and died in 1820. He was employed as a slave in St Domingo on the outbreak of the blacks against the French in 1793. From the commencement of the troubles he signalized himself by his energy, boldness, and activity in many bloody engagements. Toussaint-L'Ouverture gave him the commission of brigadier-general, and he was largely instrumental in driving the French from the island. After the death of Jean Dessalines Henri Christophe became master of the northern part of the island. In 1811 he had himself proclaimed King of Haiti by the name of Henri I. He also sought to perpetuate his name by the compilation of the Code Henri - a digest founded upon the Code Napoleon. His cruelty provoked a revolt, which being unable to quell he shot himself, 1820. Research Henri Christophe
Henry Cristophe was king of northern Haiti. He was born in 1767 at the British West Indies and died in 1820. Born a slave, he was a lieutenant of Toussaint L'Ouverture during the war for Haitian independence. Following the ousting of the French from Haiti, Henry Cristophe formed a separate state in northern Haiti and proclaimed himself king, ruling as king Henry I from 1811 until he shot himself following a stroke in 1820. Following his death his state was absorbed into the Haitian Republic. Research Henry Cristophe
Jean Pierre Boyer was the first president of the Republic of Haiti. He was born in 1776 at Port-au-Prince and died in 1850 at Paris. He was a mulatto by birth but was educated in France. In 1792 he joined the French army and fought with distinction in San Domingo against the English. By his efforts all Haiti was united under one Republican Government in 1821 and he was elected president. Later the Haitians revolted against him and he was driven into exile in 1843. Research Jean Boyer
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