A nursery school or kindergarten is an educational establishment for children aged three to five. The first was established in Germany in 1836 by Friedrich Froebel. Provision of nursery education varies widely between countries. In the UK, fewer than half of three and four-year olds have nursery education. In France, all children attend a state-run ecole maternelle from the age of three. In Japan, education is compulsory only from the age of six, but 90% of children attend a private nursery school from the age of three. The first kindergarten in Britain was opened by a German exile, Johannes Ronge, in Hampstead, London, in 1851, based on the philosophy of Froebel. Nursery education was extended in 1911 to working- class children by MargaretMcMillan and her sister Rachel, who worked in London's docklands. The Education Act of 1944 did not make nursery school compulsory. Increasing parental pressure from the 1960s led to a slow expansion, although at the end of the 1980s the UK still lagged behind most European countries in the provision of nursery-school places. Although 45% of three-and four-year-olds were in education in 1992, only half of these were in genuine nursery classes or schools; the rest were in primary classes. Research Nursery School
Erwin Johannes Eugen Rommel ('The Desert Fox') was a German field marshal. He was born in 1891 and died in 1944. He served in the Great War and the Second World War where he played an important part in the invasions of central Europe and France. He was commander of the North African offensive from 1941 until he was defeated at the Battle of El Alamein and he was expelled from Africa in March 1943. He was commander in chief for a short time against the Allies in Europe 1944 but, as a sympathizer with the unsuccessful Stauffenberg plot to assassinate Hitler, was forced to commit suicide in 1944. Research Erwin Rommel
The German Catholics were a religious sect which sprung up in Germany about the close of the year 1844. The immediate cause of its formation was the exhibition by Arnoldi, bishop of Treves, of the holy coat preserved in the cathedral of that city, accompanied by a promise of plenary indulgence to whoever should make a pilgrimage to Treves to worship it. The announcement caused a general feeling of astonishment in Germany, and two priests, Johannes Ronge of Silesia and Johann Czerski of Posen, whose independent views had already caused the deposition of the one and the secession of the other, led a secession movement, appealing to the lower grades of clergy to unite in founding a national German church independent of the pope.
A number of congregations were formed, especially in Leipzig, under the celebrated Robert Blum, and in Magdeburg under the teacher Kote. Two creeds were drawn up for the new church, the Confession of Schneidemuhl, by Czerski, which, though substantially Roman Catholic, rejected indulgences, purgatory, auricular confession, etc, and the Confession of Breslau, drawn up by Ronge. The latter, which was much less orthodox, was substantially adopted by the Council which met at Leipzig on March the 22nd, 1845.
The organization was almost the same as that of the Presbyterian Dissenting churches of Scotland. Each congregation was to choose its own pastor and elders. For a time the new church had a great success. Many Protestants joined the body, which, by the end of 1845, numbered nearly 300 congregations. Difficulties soon arose, however. The majority of the German governments began to use repressive measures. More fatal were internal dissensions, one party, headed by Czerski, clinging to the traditions and doctrines of the Roman Catholic Church, the other, headed by Ronge, tending to mix up democratic and socialistic principles with their creed. The result, in spite of several attempts to re-establish unity, was disintegration and decay. The congregations rapidly dwindled, many being readmitted, to the state church, and, especially after the rise of Old Catholicism, the movement lost all importance. Research German Catholics
Johannes Bessarion was a titular patriarch of Constantinople and Greek scholar. He was born in 1389 or 1395 at Trebizond and died in 1472. He was made archbishop of Nicaea by John Palaeologus, whose efforts to unite the Greek and Roman churches he seconded in such a way as to lose the esteem of his countrymen and gain that of PopeEugenius IV, who made him cardinal. He held various important posts, and was twice nearly elected pope. The revival of letters in the fifteenth century owed not a little to his influence. He left translations of Aristotle and vindications of Plato, with valuable collections of books and manuscripts. Research Johannes Bessarion
Johannes Brahms was a German composer. He was born in 1833 at Hamburg and died in 1897. The son of a musician, he made a position for himself as composer and pianist at an early age, and his musical compositions received the approval of Liszt and Schumann. The greater part of his life was spent at Vienna, and was entirely devoted to composition. His works are very numerous, and belong to several different classes, but include no operas, though two overtures are among them. They comprise three hundred solo songs, a number of sacred and secular choral works, concerted vocal works, orchestral works, chamber music, pianoforte solos, Hungarian dances arranged as duets for the piano, etc. Brahms ranks among musicians as a classicist, and is now admitted to be one of the great musicians of Germany. Research Johannes Brahms
Johannes Dumichen was a German Egyptologist. He was born in 1833 near Glogau and died in 1894. He studied Egyptology under Lepsius and was deputed by the Prussian government to explore the NileValley in 1862 and 1868. He also accompanied the Prussian Crown Prince to Egypt on the occasion of the opening of the Suez Canal. In 1872 he was appointed professor of Egyptology at Strasbourg. Research Johannes Dumichen
Johannes Friedrich August Esmarch was a German surgeon. He was born in 1828 and died after 1905. He held high official positions during the Schleswig-Holstein and Franco-German wars and earned a reputation as a great authority on gun-shot wounds. He originated valuable improvements in barrack-hospitals, ambulances, etc. and was the author of several surgical works. Research Johannes Esmarch
Johannes Ewald was a Danish poet. He was born in 1743 at Copenhagen and died in 1781. After studying theology at Copenhagen University he ran away and joined the Prussian army during the Seven Years' War, and soon deserted for the Austrian army and after his return home in 1760 wrote an elegy on the death of Frederick V of Denmark which was received with general admiration, and awoke in himself the consciousness of poetic talent. His reputation rapidly increased with the publication of his tragedies, The Death of Balder, Adam and Eve, Rolfkrage, etc; and his odes and songs, notable amongst which are: King Christian, Liden Gunver, Rungsted's Lyksalighed. Research Johannes Ewald
Johannes Carsten Hauch was a Danish poet. He was born in 1790 at Frederikshald, Norway and died in 1872. He became professor of Scandinavian literature at Kiel in 1846 and professor of aesthetics at Copenhagen in 1851. Most of his tragedies are distinguished by vigorous characterisation and vivid historical colour. Research Johannes Hauch
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Matt and Leela Probert
Abbreviations
Research Nursery School
