Alchemy or alchymy is the art which in former times occupied the place of and paved the way for the modern science of chemistry (as astrology did for astronomy), but whose aims were not scientific, being confined solely to the discovery of the means of indefinitely prolonging human life, and of transmuting the baser metals into gold and silver.
Among the alchemists it was generally thought necessary to find a substance which, containing the original principle of all matter, should possess the power of dissolving all substances into their elements. This general solvent, or menstruum universale, which at the same time was to possess the power of removing all the seeds of disease out of the human body and renewing life, was called the philosophers stone, lapis philosopherum, and its pretended possessors were known as adepts. Alchemy nourished chiefly in the middle ages, though how old might be such notions as those by which the alchemists were inspired it is difficult to say. The mythical Hermes Trismegistus of pre-Christian times was said to have left behind him many books of magical and alchemical learning, and after him alchemy received the name of the hermetic art.
At a later period chemistry and alchemy were cultivated among the Arabians, and by them the pursuit was introduced into Europe. Many of the monks devoted themselves to alchemy, although they were latterly prohibited from studying it by the popes. But there was one even among these, John XXII, who was fond of alchemy. Raymond Lully, or Lullius, a famous alchemist of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, is said to have changed for King Edward I a mass of 50,000 lbs of quicksilver (mercury) into gold, of which the first rose-nobles were coined.
Among other alchemists may be mentioned Paracelsus and Basilius Valentinus. With the growth of chemistry, the recognition of the chemical elements as forming a large number of distinct substances, and the conception of the fixed unalterable nature of the atoms, attempts to transform the base metals into gold were largely abandoned as being unscientific. Research Alchemy
The Alexandrian Version or Codex Alexandrinus, is a manuscript in the British Museum, of great importance in Biblical criticism, written on parchment with uncial letters, and belonging probably to the latter half of the sixth century. It contains the whole Greek Bible (the Old Testament being according to the Septuagint), together with the letters of Bishop Clement of Rome, but it wants parts of Matthew, John, and Second Corinthians. The Patriarch of Constantinople, who in 1628 sent this manuscript as a present to Charles I, said he had received it from Egypt - hence its name. Research Alexandrian Version
Anabaptists (from the Greek anabaptisein, to rebaptize) was a name given to a Christian sect by their adversaries, because, as they objected to infantbaptism, they re-baptized those who joined their body. The founder of the sect appears to have been Nicolas Storch, a disciple of Luther's, who seems to have aimed also at the reorganization of society based on civil and political equality. Gathering round him a number of fiery spirits, among whom was Thomas Munzer, he incited the peasantry of Suabia and Franconia to insurrection - the doctrine of a community of goods being now added to their creed. This insurrection was quelled in 1525, when Munzer was put to the torture and beheaded. After the death of Munzer the sectaries dispersed in all directions, spreading their doctrines wherever they went. In 1534 the town of Miinster in Westphalia became their centre of action. Under the leadership of Bockhold and Matthias their numbers increased daily, and being joined by the restless spirits of the adjoining towns, they soon made themselves masters of the town and expelled their adversaries. Matthias became their prophet, but he fell in a sally against the Bishop of Munster, Count Waldeck, who had laid siege to the city. Bockhold then became leader, assuming the name of John of Leyden, king of the New Jerusalem, and Munster became a theatre of all the excesses of fanaticism, lust, and cruelty. The town was eventually taken in June, 1535, and Bockhold and a great many of his partisans suffered death. This was the last time that the movement assumed anything like political importance.
In the meantime some of the apostles, who were sent out by Bockhold to extend the limits of his kingdom, had been successful in various places, and many independent teachers, who preached the same doctrines, continued active in the work of founding a new empire of pure Christians. It is true that they rejected the practice of polygamy, community of goods, and intolerance towards those of different opinions which had prevailed in Munster; but they enjoined upon their adherents the other doctrines of the early Anabaptists, and certain heretical opinions in regard to the humanity of Christ, occasioned by the controversies of that day about the sacrament. The most celebrated of those Anabaptist prophets were Melchior Hoffmann, the founder of the Hoffmannists or Millenarians; Galenus Abrahamssohn, from whom the sect of the Galenists were called; and Simon Menno, founder of various sects known as Mennonites.
Menno's principles are contained in his Principles of the True Christian Faith, 1556, a work which is held as authoritative on points of doctrine and worship among the Baptist communities of Germany and the Netherlands. The application of the term Anabaptist to the general body of Baptists throughout the world is unwarranted, because these sects have nothing in common with the bodies which sprung up in various countries of Europe during the Reformation, except the practice of adult baptism. The Baptists themselves repudiate the name Anabaptist, as they claim to baptize according to the original institution of the rite, and never repeat baptism in the case of those who in their opinion have been so baptized. Research Anabaptists
The Antinomians were a Christian religious sect founded in Germany by John Agricola. Antinomians believed that the law was of no use or obligation under the dispensation of the Gospel, and that good works availed nothing toward salvation. Antinomianism arrived in the USA with Anne Hutchinson, an English Antinomian who arrived in 1634 and supported the preachings of John Cotton and John Wheelwright. She was tried in 1637, and banished along with John Wheelwright and others. A number of her followers were fined or otherwise punished and the rule of the Puritanhierarchy was firmly established at the expense of freedom of thought and speech. Research Antinomians
Apocalypse is the name frequently given to the last book of the New Testament, in the English version called The Revelation of St John the Divine. It is generally believed that the Apocalypse was written by the apostle John in his old age around 95 to 97 A.D. in the Isle of Patnios, whither he had been banished by the Roman Emperor Domitian. Anciently its genuineness was maintained by Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, Clement of Alexandria, Tertullian, and many others; while it was doubted by Dionysius of Alexandria, Cyril of Jerusalem, Chrysostorn, and, nearer our own times, by Luther and a majority of the eminent German commentators. The Apocalypse has been explained differently by almost every writer who has ventured to interpret it, and has furnished all sorts of sects and fanatics with quotations to support their creeds or pretensions. The modern interpreters may be divided into three schools - namely, the historical school who hold that the prophecy embraces the whole history of the church and its foes from the time of its writing to the end of the world; the Praeterists, who hold that the whole or nearly the whole of the prophecy has been already fulfilled, and that it refers chiefly to the triumph of Christianity over Paganism and Judaism; and the Futurists, who throw the whole prophecy, except the first three chapters, forward upon a time not yet reached by the church - a period of no very long duration, which is immediately to precede Christ's second coming. Research Apocalypse
Arminianism is a doctrine in Christianity, formulated in the 17th century and named after the Dutch Calvinist Jacobus Arminius, which declares that human free will can exist without limiting God's power or contradicting the Bible. Arminius believed predestination was biblical and true - that God had intended some persons for heaven and others for hell, as indicated by Jesus' reference to ' sheep and goats.' But he focused on God's love more than on God's power in speaking of election, the process by which God chose those intended for heaven. After Arminius died, a group of ministers who sympathised with his views developed a systematic and rational theology based on his teachings. In their declaration, a remonstrance issued in 1610, the Arminians argued that election was conditioned by faith, that grace could be rejected, that the work of Christ was intended for all persons, and that it was possible for believers to fall from grace. At the Synod of Dort, or Dordrecht, the High Calvinists prevailed over the Arminian party and condemned the Remonstrants.
The Synod of Dort declared that Christ's work was meant only for those elect to salvation, that people believing could not fall from grace, and that God's election depended on no conditions. Remonstrants were not tolerated at all in Holland until 1630, and then not fully until 1795. They have, however, continued an Arminian tradition in the Netherlands into the late 20th century. The British theologian John Wesley studied and affirmed the work of Arminius in his Methodist movement during the 18th century in England. American Methodists for the most part have leaned toward the theology of the Remonstrants. In popular expression Arminianism has come to mean that no predestination exists and people are free to follow or reject the gospel. Research Arminianism
The Astor Library was a public library founded in New York City by John Jacob Astor, and opened in 1853 following a bequest of $400,000 left by John Jacob Astor, followed by bequests of $200,000 and $450,0000 by his son and grandson. Research Astor Library
Augustus II or Frederick-Augustus I was Elector of Saxony and King of Poland. He was born in 1670 at Dresden and died in 1733. He was the second son of John George III, elector of Saxony. He succeeded his brother in the electorate in 1694, and the Polish throne having become vacant, in 1696, by the death of John Sobieski, Augustus presented himself as a candidate for it and was successful. He joined with Peter the Great in the war against Charles XII of Sweden, invaded Livonia, but was defeated by Charles near Riga, and at Clissow, between Warsaw and Cracow. In 1704 he was deposed, and two years later formally resigned the crown to Stanislaus I, now devoting himself to his Saxon dominions. In 1709, after the defeat of Charles at Pultowa, the Poles recalled Augustus, who united himself anew with Peter. The two monarchs, in alliance with Denmark, sent troops into Pomerania, but the Swedish general Steinbock defeated the allies at Gadebusch, on December the 20th, 1712. The death of Charles XII put an end to the war, and Augustus concluded a peace with Sweden. A confederation was now formed in Poland against the Saxon troops, but through the mediation of Peter an arrangement was concluded by which the Saxon troops were removed from the kingdom. Augustus now gave himself wholly up to voluptuousness and a life of pleasure. His court was one of the most splendid and polished in Europe. The Poles yielded but too readily to the example of their king, and the last years of his reign were characterized by boundless luxury and corruption of manners. His wife left him one son. The Countess of Konigsmark bore him the celebrated commander Marshal Saxe (Maurice of Saxony). Research Augustus II
The Bampton Lectures were a course of lectures established in 1751 by John Bampton, canon of Salisbury, who bequeathed certain property to the University of Oxford for the endowment of eight divinity lectures to be annually delivered. The subjects prescribed were mainly connected with the evidences of Christianity, and the lecturer must have taken the degree of M.A. at Oxford or Cambridge. The first course of lectures was delivered in 1780, and were delivered every year since, with the exceptions of 1834, 1835, and 1841. Among the more remarkable lectures were those by Dr. White in 1784, by Dr. Mant in 1812, by Reginald Heber in 1815, Whately in 1822, Milman in 1827, Dr. Hampden in 1832, Mr. Mansel in 1858, Canon Liddon in 1866, CanonGore in 1891. A similar course of lectures, the Hulsean, was annually delivered at Cambridge. Research Bampton Lectures
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Matt and Leela Probert
Abbreviations
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