Alias (from the Latin meaning 'on another occasion', or 'otherwise'), is a word often used in judicial proceedings in connection with the different names that persons have assumed, most likely for prudential reasons at different times, and in order to conceal identity, as Joseph Smith alias Thomas Jones. Research Alias
Drama (from the Greek drew, I act), is a class of writings which almost entirely consist of dialogue, persons being represented as acting and speaking, and the pieces being usually intended to be acted on a stage by parties assuming the characters of the respective persons.
Its two great branches are tragedy and comedy, the former, roughly speaking, melancholy in character, the latter cheerful. The origin of the drama must be sought for in the love of imitation, and dramatic performances of some kind are to be met with probably among all nations.
Dramatic compositions are found in the Old Testament, for example in Job and the Song of Solomon; and ancient India and China both developed a dramatic literature of their own.
The European drama bad its origin in Greece. Both forms, tragic and comic, took their rise in the celebrations of the Greek festivals of Dionysus (Bacchus), at which hymns and chants were sung by choruses in honour of the god, and the chorus continued to be a prominent feature of the old Greek drama. Greek comedy commenced about 580-560 BC with Susarion, but it was long in attaining regular form. Of the old Greek comedy the chief representatives were Oratinus, Eupolis, Pherecrates, and Aristophanes - the last the greatest.
The invention of tragedy is generally ascribed to Thespis about 530 BC, who was followed by Phrynichus. But the true creator of tragedy was Aeschylus, in whose works and those of Sophocles and Euripides it found its most perfect expression. Thespis had only one actor, who from time to time relieved the chorus by declamation. Aeschylus changed this representation into real action by making use of two actors in addition to the chorus. Aeschylus also introduced masks; and by means of a long gown and the cothurnus, or buskin, the lofty stature of the heroes was imitated. A third actor was first introduced by Sophocles. The accommodations for the spectators were improved, and machinery and scenery introduced. The theatres, which had been formerly built of wood, were now large stone erections, capable of containing the greater number of the citizens. The regular drama among the Romans was borrowed from the Greeks. Plautus and Terence were imitators of the Greek comedy, Livius Andronicus (240 BC) of the Greek tragedy. Of the Roman tragedy, the dramas of Seneca are the only specimens extant.
In most modern European countries the regular drama took its rise in the mysteries, miracle-plays, and moralities of the middle ages. In Italy, however, it began with a reproduction in Latin of classical models. The earliest tragedy in Italian is Trissino's Sofonisba (1502). Regular comedies in Italian were written by Ariosto, Aretino, Macchiavelli, and others; and to the same period (15th and 16th centuries) belongs the Italian Pastoral Drama, which sprung from the ancient idylls, and aimed at a fanciful delineation of Arcadian and mythological scenes. Among the pastoral dramatists of this period are Poliziano, Tasso, and Guarini. The pastorals gave birth to the opera, early masters of which, so far as it may be included in the poetic drama, are Zenoand Metastasio. The Italian drama waned in the 17th century, but in the 18th genuine comedy and classic tragedy were restored, the former by Goldoni, the latter by Alfieri. Monti, Manzoni, and Niccolini are among the later writers of tragedy.
The other European nations cultivated the dramatic art much later than the Italians. The English and Spaniards devoted their attention to it almost at the game time; the former reaching their acme in William Shakespeare, the latter in Lope de Vega and Calderon. The history of the English theatre and the drama is naturally divided into two parts, the first of which begins with the reign of Elizabeth I and ends with the reign of Charles I. The rapid developmentof the drama during the reign of Elizabeth I was entirely unhampered by foreign influence. Lyly, Peele, Greene, Marlowe, William Shakespeare, Ben Jonson, Beaumont and Fletchor, Chapman, Webster, Middleton, Marston, Ford,and Massinger are among the chief names connected with the brilliant period of the English drama.
During the Commonwealth the Puritans prohibited all kinds of plays, and the theatres were shut up for thirteen years. With Charles II the drama reappeared, and exhibited a licentiousness hardly equalled by that of any other Christian nation. Among the chief names belonging to this period are Dryden, Otway, Lee, Shadwell, Wycherley, and Etherege. From the close of the 17th to that of the 18th century British comedy was cultivated with much success by Cibber, Farquhar, Congreve, Sheridan, and others.
During the 19th century many writers have been conspicuous by their dramas. Among the chief of these may be noted Byron, Coleridge, Landor, Shelley, Maturin, Talfourd, Milman, Sir Henry Taylor, the first LordLytton, Knowles, R. H. Home, Arnold, Browning, Swinburne, and Tennyson. Among other 19th-century writers for the stage, who, however, may be called playwrights rather than dramatists, may be named, Douglas Jerrold, Tom Taylor, Charles Reade, Thomas Robertson, W. G. Wills, H. Byron, R. Buchanan, Dion Boucicault, W. S. Gilbert, J. M. Barrie, A. W. Pinero, H. A. Jones, etc.
The French drama was in a miserable state before Corncille (1606-84), who indeed is looked on as the founder of the drama in France. Racine, Moliere, Voltaire, and in later times Hugo, are some of the other distinguished French dramatists. Since about 1820 a new dramatic school has been formed in France, which, departing from the ancient strictness of what is called the classic, approaches more and more to the German or British, or what is called the romantic school. The establishment of this school formed part of the general reaction against the excessive adherence to classic models in literature, the leader in the movement being Victor Hugo. C. Delavigne marks the transition from the classical to the beginnings of the romantic school, and among the 19th century dramatists may be mentioned A. de Vigny, George Sand, A. de Musset, Merimee, Ponsard, Augier, Scribe, Dumas the Younger, and Sardou.
The German drama is of later birth than any thus far mentioned, and for a long time the Germans contented themselves with translations and adaptations from the French. Leasing was the first who, by word and deed, broke the French sway (1755), and he was succeeded by Schiller and Goethe, who rank as the greatest of the more modern dramatists. Prominent names in the German drama are Kotzebue, Korner, Schlegel, Tieck, Brentano, Grillparzer, Hebbel, Ludwig, Gutzkow, Freytag, Laube, Von Moser, etc.
The Dutch drama begins with the classical tragedies of Koster in the beginning of the 17th century, and reached its highest in Vondel (1587-1659). Holberg, Heiberg, Oehlenschlager, Ibsen, and Bjornson are the chief names connected with the Scandinavian drama.
The advent of moving pictures during the 20th century revolutionised drama, and introduced film or movies to the audience, with the USA quickly developing a reputation for film making based in Hollywood, and by the end of the 20th century the Indian city of Mumbai had become a leading center of Hindi language film making producing more films than even Hollywood. Research Drama
The Jones Case was a typical fugitive slave case in the USA. George Jones, a respectable black man, was arrested in New York in 1836, on a fictitious charge of assault and battery. He was taken before Recorder Riker and was released to his kidnappers as their property, their word being taken as sufficient evidence. This was a favourite method of kidnapping blacks for selling as slaves. Research Jones Case
Scooby Doo is an American animated cartoontelevision series for children by William Hanna and Joseph Barbera, about four young people - brave FredJones, glamorous DaphneBlake, brainy Velma Dinkley and cowardly Norville Rogers, better known as 'Shaggy' - and their cowardly pet great dane - Scoobert (known as Scooby) Doo - who each show solve a supernatural crime, which they call a mystery. The original 1960's and 1970's cartoon series spawned sequels and feature-length films as well as a live action film. The original stories were written by Ken Spears and Joe Ruby and first aired in 1969 on the CBStelevision network in the USA. Research Scooby Doo
The Damned were are a British punk rock band. They started life in 1975 as 'The London SS' with Mick Jones, Tony James and Brian James under the management of Bernie Rhodes. Chris Millar joined during the winter of 1975 as a drummer and was christened 'Rat Scabies' by Brian James. The London SS folded as Bernie Rhodes and Mick Jones formed the Clash and the remaining band members met Dave Vanian and Ray Burns who had worked with Chris Millar cleaning toilets. The Damned were born and played their first concert at the 100 club supporting the Sex Pistols in 1976. Research The Damned
The Sullivans was an Australian soap-opera television series following the lives of a fictional suburban Australian family and their friends during the Second World War. The Sullivans was created by Jack Blair and Ian Jones and ran from 1976 to 1983. Research The Sullivans
Tom Jones (The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling) is a novel written in 1749 by Henry Fielding. The story tells of a foundling, Tom Jones, led astray by the impetuousness of his own nature. He has many adventures, which take him through scenes of uproarious 18th-century life, until he is finally redeemed by his own good heart and the love of the beautiful Sophia Western. Research Tom Jones
The Norfolk Terrier is an English breed of hunting terrier bred during the 1800s, originally known as the Jones Terrier the breed was subdivided into two in 1964 following a decision by the British Kennel Club, and the animals with folded ears are known as Norfolk Terriers and those with erect ears are known as Norwich Terriers. They are hardy and loyal dogs with a shaggy tan coloured coat and stand twenty-five centimetres tall. Research Norfolk Terrier
Allan Cunningham was a Scottish poet. He was born in 1785 at Vlackwood and died in 1842. Apprenticed at the age of eleven to a stone-mason, having been employed by Cromek to collect materials for his Remains of Nithsdale and Galloway Song, he sent instead his own productions, which were printed, but quickly recognized as being forgeries. He then proceeded to London, where he at first supported himself by journalism, but afterwards obtained a situation in the studio of Chantrey, with whom he remained until his death. His later works comprise the drama of Sir MarmadukeMaxwell; the novels of Paul Jones and Sir Michael Scott; the Songs of Scotland; his British Painters, Sculptors, and Architects (1829); and lives of Burns and of Mary Queen of Scots. Research Allan Cunningham
Anson Jones was a Texan politician. He was born in 1798 and died in 1858. He was prominent in gaining the independence of Texas. He was Minister from Texas to the United States from 1837 to 1839. He was Secretary of State in Texas from 1841 to 1844 and President in 1845, at the time of the annexation. Research Anson Jones
The Probert Encyclopaedia was designed, edited and programed by
Matt and Leela Probert
Abbreviations
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