A colony is a settlement formed in one country by the inhabitants of another. Colonies may either be formed in dependence on the mother country or in independence. In the latter case the name of colony is retained only in a historical sense. Properly, perhaps, the term should be limited to a settlement which carries on a direct cultivation of the soil, as in the former British colonies of Canada and Australia in contrast to the former in Hindustan or Malta which were the mere superposition on the natives of a ruling race which took little or no part in the general industry of the country.
The motives which lead to the formation of colonies, and the manner of their formation, are various. Sometimes the ambition of extending territory and the desire of increasing wealth have been the chief impulses in colonization; but colonies became a necessity for the redundant population of European states in the 19th century.
Among ancient nations the principal promoters of colonization were the Phoenicians, the Greeks, and the Romans; the greatest colonizers in modern times have been the English and the Spaniards, next to whom may be reckoned the Portuguese, the Dutch, and the French. The Germans during the 19th century contributed largely to the tide of emigration, particularly in the direction of America;
but did little directly as colonizers.
The Phoenician colonies were partly caused by political dissensions and redundant population, but were chiefly commercial, serving as entrepots and ports of repair for Phoenician commerce along the coasts of Africa and Spain, in the latter of which they numbered, according to Strabo, more than two hundred. But it was in Africa that the most famous arose, Carthage, the greatest colonizing state of the ancient world.
The Greek colonies, which were widely spread in Asia Minor and the islands of the Mediterranean, the coasts of Macedonia and Thrace, in South Italy and Sicily, were commonly independent, and frequently soon surpassed the mother states in power and importance.
The colonies of Rome were chiefly military, and while the empire lasted were all in strict subordination to the central government. As the Roman power declined the remains of them amalgamated with the peoples among whom they were placed, thus forming in countries where they were sufficiently strong what are known as the Latin races, with languages (Spanish, Portuguese, French, and Italian) which are merely modifications of the old Roman tongue.
Before America and the way by sea to the East Indies were discovered, the only colonies belonging to European states were those of the Genoese, Pisans, and Venetians in the Levant and the Black Sea, flourishing establishments on which the mercantile greatness of Italy in those days was largely built.
The Portuguese were the first great colonizers among modern states. In 1419 they discovered Madeira, the Azores, and the Cape Verde Islands; the Congo and the Cape of Good Hope followed; and before the century was out Vasco de Gama had landed at Calicut on the Malabar coast of India. The first Portuguese colonies were garrisons along the coasts where they traded: Mozambique and Sofala on the east coast of Africa, Ormuz and Muscat in the Persian Gulf, Goa and Damao on the west coast of India. Colonies were established in Sri Lanka in 1505, in the Moluccas in 1510. Brazil was discovered in 1499, and this magnificent possession fell to Portugal, and was colonized about 1530. Bad government at home and the subjection of the country to Spain caused the loss of most of the Portuguese colonies.
Soon after the Portuguese the Spaniards commenced the work of colonization. In 1492 Columbus, on board of a Spanish vessel, discovered the island of San Salvador. Haiti, or San Domingo, Porto Rico, Jamaica, and Cuba were soon colonized, and before the middle of the 16th century Mexico, Ecuador, Venezuela, New Granada (Colombia), Peru, and Chili were subdued, and Spain took the first rank amongst the colonizing powers of Europe. But the Spaniards never really attempted to develop the industrial resources of the subject countries. The pursuit of mining for gold or silver occupied the colonists almost exclusively, and the enslaved natives were driven to work themselves to death in the mines. Cities were founded, at first along the coasts, for the sake of commerce and as military posts; afterwards also in the interior, in particular in the vicinity of the mines, as Vera Cruz, Cumana, Porto Bello, Carthagena, Valencia, Caracas; Acapuico and Panama, on the coast of the Pacific; Lima, Goncepcion, and Buenos Aires. The colonial intercourse with Spain was confined to the single port of Seville, afterwards to that of Cadiz, from which two squadrons started annually - the galleons, about twelve in number, for Porto Bello; and the fleet, of fifteen large vessels, for Vera Cruz. When the power of Spain declined, the colonies declared their independence, and thus were formed the republics of Mexico, Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chili, etc. Cuba, Porto Rico, and the Philippine Islands passed to the United States in 1898; the Caroline Islands, etc, were sold to Germany in 1899; and by 1900 hardly any colony remained to Spain.
The hate of Philip II, who prohibited Dutch vessels from the port of Lisbon, forced the Dutch to import directly from India or lose the large carrying trade they had acquired. Several companies were soon formed, and in 1602 they were united into one, the Dutch East India Company, with a monopoly of the East Indiatrade and sovereign powers over all conquests and colonies in India. The Dutch now rapidly deprived the Portuguese of nearly all their East Indian territories, settled a colony at the Cape of Good Hope in 1650, established a West India Company, made extensive conquests in Brazil between 1623 and 1660, which were soon lost, and more permanent ones on some of-the smaller West India Islands, as San Eustatia, Curacoa, Saba, etc. The growing power of the British and the loss of Holland's independence during the Napoleonic wars were heavy blows to the colonial power of the nation. But the Dutch still possesed numerous colonies in the East Indies at the start of the 20th century, among which the more important were Java, Sumatra, Dutch Borneo, the Molucca Islands, and part of New Guinea, also several small islands in the West Indies, and Surinam.
No colonizing power of Europe had a career of such uniform prosperity as Great Britain. The English attempts at colonization began nearly at the same time with the Dutch. After many fruitless attempts to find a north-east or north-west passage to the East Indies, English vessels found their way round the Cape of Good Hope to the East Indies in 1591. The East India Company was established in 1600. English commerce with India, however, was not at first important, and they possessed only single factories on the continent up until the beginning of the 18th century. The ruin of the Mogul Empire in India after the death of Aurengzebe in 1707 afforded the opportunity for the growth of British power, as the British and French were compelled to interfere in the contentions of the native princes and governors. The French appeared at first to maintain the superiority; but the British in turn got the upper hand, and the victory of Clive at Plassey in 1756 laid the foundation of an exclusive British sovereignty in India. By the middle of the next century the British territory embraced, with the exception of a few dependent states, nearly the whole of India, and this vast territory was still under the government of the East India Company - a mercantile company, controlled indeed by parliament, but exercising many of the most important functions of an independent sovereignty. On the suppression of the Indian mutiny in 1857-1858 the government of India was transferred to the crown by act of parliament in 1858.
The discoveries of the Cabots, following soon after the voyages of Columbus, gave the English crown a claim to North America, which, though allowed to lie dormant for nearly a century, was never relinquished, and which, in the reign of Elizabeth I, led to colonization on a large scale. Walter Raleigh's settlement on Roanoke Island (North Carolina) in 1585 failed to become permanent, but in 1607 the colonists sent out by the London Company to Chesapeake Bay founded Jamestown, on the James River, in Virginia. The next great settlement was that of the Pilgrim Fathers, who landed on the 21st of December 1620, in Massachusetts Bay. The colonization of New Hampshire, Maine, New Jersey, Connecticut and Rhode Island, soon followed. In the State of New York and the Hudson River Territory the British found the Dutch already in possession; but in 1664 they seized the colony of New Amsterdam by force, changing its name to New York in honour of James, Duke of York. Pennsylvania was founded by William Penn, and colonized with Quakers in 1682; Maryland in 1631 by a party from Virginia; Carolina in 1670 and Georgia in 1732 by colonies from England.
Colonies were early established in the West India Islands, including Barbados, half of St. Christopher's in 1625, and soon after many smaller islands. Newfoundland was taken possession of in 1583, colonized in 1621 and 1633. Canada was surrendered to Britain at the Peace of Paris in 1763. In 1764 began the disputes between Britain and its North American colonies, which terminated with the acknowledgment of the independence of the United States, Canada remaining a British dependency.
Australia was discovered in the beginning of the 17th century. The first Australasian settlements of Britain were penal colonies. New South Wales, discovered in 1770, was established as a penal colony in 1788; Tasmania (Van Diemen's Land), discovered by Tasman in 1642, followed in 1803; West Australia, also first used as a penal settlement, became a free colony in 1829; Victoria was colonized in 1835, and made an independent colony in 1851; South Australia was settled in 1836. In 1851 the discovery of gold in Victoria gave a great impetus to the Australian Colonies. Queensland was made a separate colony from N.ew South Wales in 1859. New Zealand, discovered by Tasman in 1642, began to be used for whale-fishery about 1790, was settled in 1839, and made a colony in 1840. In 1874 the Fiji Islands, and in 1884 part of New Guinea, were annexed as crown colonies. In South AfricaCape Colony, first settled by the Dutch in 1652, finally became a British colony in 1815. Natal followed in 1843. Later annexations were Bechuanaland in 1885, Zululand in 1887, Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) in 1888-89, and the Orange River Colony and Transvaal in 1900. In Western Africa were the colonies of the Gold Coast, Gambia, and SierraLeone - ancient possessions of the British crown; with Lagos and Nigeria acquired in 1885 and after. Other possessions were British East Africa (Kenya), with Uganda and Somaliland. Gibraltar was acquired in 1704, Malta in 1800.
According to their government relations with the crown the colonies were arranged under three heads: (1.) Crown colonies, in which the crown had the entire control of legislation, while the administration was carried on by public officers under the control of the home government. (2.) Colonies possessing representative institutions but not responsible government, in which the crown had no more than a veto on legislation, but the home government retained the control of public officers. (3.) Colonies possessing representative institutions and responsible government, in which the crown had only a veto on legislation, and the home government had no control over any officer except the governor. All colonies were, however, disabled from such acts of independent sovereignty as the initiative in war, alliances, and diplomacy generally.
France was somewhat late in establishing colonies. Between 1627 and 1636 the West Indian islands of St Christopher's, Guadeloupe, and Martinique were colonized by private persons. Champlain was the pioneer of the French in the exploration of the North American continent, and founded Quebec in 1608. Colbert purchased several West India islands, as Martinique, Guadeloupe, St Lucia, etc, and sent out colonists in 1664 to Cayenne. In 1670 the East India Company formed by Colbert founded Pondicherry, which became the capital of extensive possessions in the East Indies. At the beginning of the 18th century France had extensive settlements in Canada, Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland, the most flourishing of the West India islands, and she seemed to have a prosperous career before her in India. Ere long, however, the rival interests of British and French colonists brought about a conflict which terminated in the loss of Canada and other North American possessions, as well as many of the West India Islands, while the dominion of India passed into the hands of the British.
During the 19th century Germany made an effort to take rank as a colonial power, and acquired in Africa the territories of Damaraland, Great Nama Land, etc, on the south-west coast, north of Cape Colony; the Cameroons District; a large portion of territory formerly claimed by the Sultan of Zanzibar, extending inland to Victoria Nyanza, etc; also in the Pacific a portion of New Guinea, then subsequently called Kaiser Wilhelm's Land, the BismarckArchipelago, Marshall Islands, etc.
The double-headed eagle is a familiar symbol which originates from the German eagle which is depicted looking right, and the Russian eagle which is depicted looking left. When Charlemagne was made Kaiser of the Holy Roman Empire he joined the two symbolic eagles together to form a double-headed eagle looking simultaneously both east and west. Research Double-Headed Eagle
Caesar was a title, originally a surname of the Julian family at Rome, which, after being dignified in the person of the dictator Caius Julius Caesar, was adopted by the successive Roman emperors, and latterly came to be applied to the heir-presumptive to the throne. The title was perpetuated in the Kaiser of the Holy Roman Empire, and in the Czar of the Russian emperors. Research Caesar
The First Battle of the Marne was the first significant victory for the French army, supported by British troops, in September 1914 during the Great War. After a fortnight of defeat and retreat the French armies with the British took the initiative, and drove back the Germans in the west 35 miles.
On September the 4th, 1914, during the Great War, Joffre issued the order to the Allied armies to assume the offensive on September the 6th, and profit by the adventurous position of the 1st German army to concentrate against it the efforts of the Allied armies on the left.
On September the 4th the cipher which the Germans employed had fallen into his hands, and from that day onwards for a fortnight he knew many of the German movements. According to Admiral von Tirpitz the German staff, on September the 6th, secured the French plans.
Joffre had learnt from the airmen's reports that Kluck's 1st German army was at this date marching from north-east of Paris to a point east of Paris, in order to support Bulow's 2nd army in crushing the French 5th army, thus exposing the German right flank to a blow. Kluck and the German intelligence service believed the British army demoralised, and they knew nothing of the new French 6th army under Maunoury, which was assembling on their right flank. This army Joffre intended to use to crush the German right, which was covered by the 4th German reserve corps. Nor had the German command knowledge of the new French 9th army which was employed in the French centre.
The armies in presence from west to east were as follows:
Germans: 1st (Kluck) 10 divisions; 2nd (Bulow) 8 divisions; 3rd (Hausen) 6 divisions; 4th (Duke of Wurttemberg) 8 divisions; 5th (Crown Prince) 8 divisions. (total German force 40 divisions).
At full strength a division would number about 20,000 men, but all these units had been fighting and were far below establishment, so it is doubtful whether they averaged 12,000 on the first day of battle.
Thus, the French 12th corps had only 6 battalions fit for battle and present, and Gallieni estimates that 5.5 of Maunoury's divisions totalled only 60,000 men. To the above divisions, which may have numbered 600,000 men for the Allies and 450,000 for the Germans, must be added troops on the line of communications, and units brought up in the battle, at the close of which, according to German authorities, 45 German divisions had been engaged against 66 Allied divisions, Two German corps were neutralised by the Belgian army, and a third was besieging Maubeuge.
The Germans were confident of success, but their communications were bad; the Belgian resistance had dislocated their plan; and the unexpected vigour of the Russian attack had led them to divert two corps to Russia, and was thus, perhaps, the cause of their defeat. Their superiority in numbers had passed, though they still retained a great superiority in heavy artillery, aircraft, and equipment.
Joffre's orders, which reached the army commanders on September the 5th, were: the new 6th army to cross the Ourcq on the 6th, moving towards Chateau-Thierry, with the 1st cavalry corps linking it to the British; the British to face east and attack in the general direction of Montmirail; the 2nd French cavalry corps to link the British right to the left of the French 5th army, which was to attack north between Courtacon and Sezanne; the 9th was to cover the right of the 5th and move north of Sezanne; the 4th army to attack and link up with the 3rd, which was to attack the left flank of the Germans marching west of the Argonne.
The German orders were for the 1st army to follow the 2nd army, echeloned behind it, act as a protection to the German flank, and crush any hostile movement from Paris in conjunction with the 2nd army; for the 3rd army to advance towards Troyes-Vandoeuvre; for the 4th and 5th armies, by a continued advance south-east to open the passages of the upper Meuse to the 6th and 7th armies. The original idea of driving the French up against the Swiss frontier was abandoned, and a plan of double envelopment of the Allies adopted.
Joffre issued a general order to his troops calling on them, if they found it impossible to advance, to 'stand their ground at all cost and die rather than give way; this is a moment when no faltering will be tolerated'. Sir John French exhorted the British army 'to show now to the enemy its power and to push on vigorously to the attack beside the 6th French army', Similar orders were issued to the German troops, who were told that 'everything depends on the result of tomorrow'.
Joffre directed the 6th army to open the attack one day in advance of the other armies, and on September the 5th Maunoury's artillery and that of the 4th German reserve corps almost simultaneously opened fire near Monthyon, and fighting continued all that afternoon. The main battle began on Sunday, September the 6th. Kluck in the night had ordered two of his four corps south-east of Paris to march to the aid of his corps near Monthyon, and during the day he recalled the other two, thus opening an enormous gap between his army and Bulow's 2nd army, apparently supposing the British in his front to be incapable of action. The British, advancing slowly across the forest of Crecy, were held in the morning by a German demonstration, but in the afternoon, noting signs of a German retreat, pushed forward to the Grand Morin. Gallieni severely criticises the leisureliness of their advance.
Meanwhile the 6th French army attacked from Meaux north with great energy. Though Kluck was hurrying up reinforcements and the fire of the German artillery was deadly, the French gained ground. On the British right the 5th French army engaged Bulow's troops, and one of Kluck's four corps which was moving back across the Marne. They forced the Germans north in prolonged fighting, bending in Bulow's right flank and gravely threatening his position. The 9th army was heavily engaged north of Sezanne, where the Germans made great attempts to break through its front; it could do no more than barely hold its positions. The 4th army was forced back very slightly; the 3rd army generally checked the Crown Prince in his effort to move on Bar-le-Duc, but it lost ground at the south of the Argonne.
On September the 7th Kluck's movement of his whole army to the Ourcq imperilled the 6th French army, and, recognizing the danger, Gallieni hurried aid to that army in taxi cabs which he requisitioned. At dusk it had gained a little more ground, though the Germans now had three corps in action, and its left flank was in danger. But it had attracted to itself Kluck's whole force, and thus created the gap in the German front which proved fatal to the German plans. The British had been delayed by a German cavalry screen with infantry detachments from Kluck's troops, using machine guns very skilfully in difficult country, but they reached the Petit Morin after seizingCoulommiers, thrusting into the gap in the German front.
The 5th army pressed Bulow hard and pushed back his right six miles; it detached the 10th corps to the right to aid the 9th French army, which was again violently attacked and very hard pressed, but held its ground gallantly. The 4th army maintained its front everywhere except to its extreme right, where the loss of Sermaize was dangerous, imperilling its connexion with the 3rd army. The 3rd army was fiercely engaged. A German corps from Metz was attacking Fort Troyon and attempting to break through the Verdun line of forts. That day Maubeuge fell, setting free one German corps and vital railways at a moment when German supplies and ammunition were running low.
On September the 8th a fierce battle raged on the Ourcq, where each side strove to outflank the other without decided success; as the fresh German troops arrived the French northern flank wavered. Gallieni hurried up reinforcements and it held. The British crossed the Petit Morin, after at La Tretoire inflicting severe loss on the Germans; they began the attack on La Ferte-sous-Jouarre and violently shelled the Marne bridges crowded with German troops. The 5th army attacked with increased energy and crossed the Petit Morin high up, capturing Montmirail and placing Bulow in peril of having his whole front rolled up, as the gap between him and Kluck widened.
The 9th army was again violently attacked; the Prussian Guard assaulted at St. Gond and stormed Fere-Champenoise; Foch's centre and right were forced back under a fearful fire from the German heavy artillery, and all but broken. Foch's coolness and the fighting qualities of the French retrieved the position. But it is a fable that he sent to Joffre the message: 'My centre is giving ground; my right retiring; situation excellent; I am attacking'. The 4th army was attacked almost as fiercely, but did not yield. The 3rd army gained a little ground. The Germans bombarded Fort Troyon all the afternoon, yet at nightfall the garrison was unshaken. The crisis of the battle had arrived and the German ammunition was beginning to run low.
On September the 9th the flank battle on the Ourcq was fiercely maintained, as fresh German troops of Kluck's army assailed the 6th French army. Here there was extreme danger; a division of the 4th corps, one of the best, momentarily recoiled, then recovered itself. The British were thrusting north into the gap between Kluck and Bulow, and Kluck was now in imminent danger of being enveloped on both flanks and crushed. At noon Hentsch, who had been sent by the German staff to examine the position, reached the 1st army and stated that as Bulow was being forced back and the German situation was unfavourable, a general retreat to the Aisne must be executed.
At the critical moment the German staff had lost heart. Kluck began to retreat about 1 pm; an hour earlier Bulow announced by wireless that his own right was in retreat. The general retirement of the Germans, carrying with it the news that the great and decisive battle of the war had been won, was noticeable from the Allied line during the afternoon. Early in the day the British had reached the Marne and pushed through La Ferte, crossing the river there and also west of Chateau-Thierry, where they advanced four miles north of the Marne, thus threatening Kluck's rear and Bulow's right flank.
The 5th French army entered Chateau-Thierry, and the aid of its 1st and 10th corps decided the battle on the left of Foch's 9th army, which was still very hotly engaged north of Sezanne. It had been forced slightly back from the St. Gond marshes, but at dusk the position improved as the Germans weakened, and Mondement was stormed by the French. The 4th army attacked with great spirit on its right, and sent two divisions to its aid. The 3rd army advanced, but much of its attention was centred on Fort Troyon, where three German attacks that evening collapsed before the steadiness of the French garrison. Sarrail refused to abandon Verdun, though Joffre had authorised him to do so. At Nancy the Germans suffered a complete defeat.
On September the 10th the 6th French army rapidly gained ground as the German retreat was accentuated. Kluck's army this day was placed under Bulow. To the south French troops of the 6th army crossed the Ourcq and pushed north astride of that river, in conjunction with the British, who had now linked up with them. Thirteen guns and 2,000 prisoners were taken by the British, who pursued in pouring rain. The 5th army pushed its centre and right to the Marne, capturing six guns and 1,500 men. The 9th army attacked north and south of the St. Gond marshes, which were nearly dry, and hustled the German rearguards. It stormed La Fere-Champenoise in the morning and by the evening reached a line 11 miles south of Epernay. The 4th army attacked without success at Vitry-le-Francois, where the Germans were strongly entrenched. The 3rd army captured Sermaize and two German assaults on Fort Troyon were repulsed.
On September the 11th and 12th the Allies in the west advanced rapidly to the Aisne; the 9th army reached Epernay and Chalons, in the centre, and on September the 13th occupied Reims. The 4th army seized Vitry-le-Francois. The 3rd army pushed up to the line of railway from Verdun to Ste. Menehould. The Germans were now approaching or had actually reached the line which they were to fortify and hold, with little change, until 1916.
The German staff in its report on the battle states that the thrust of the British into the gap between the 1st and 2nd German armies compelled the retreat. This gap, however, had been caused by the brilliant work of the 6th French army. The hardest fighting fell to the lot of the French 6th and 5th armies, to Foch, and to the French before Nancy, but all fought magnificently. The net result was that after a fortnight of defeat and retreat the French armies with the British had taken the initiative, and driven back the Germans in the west 35 miles.
German critics severely blame, both Moltke and the Kaiser for the defeat, pointing- out that they withdrew troops for the east and left a large force in Belgium, thus fatally weakening the German attack on the Marne, and that they persisted in an attempt to break through at Nancy when they had not sufficient force for such an operation. None of the German army commanders showed any great genius. Bulow, Kluck, and Hausen blame one another, but Bulow is held responsible for the order for retreat.
The credit for the victory rests as much with Gallieni as with Joffre, though Gallieni's part has been often ignored. The French generalship was of a high order, but Gallieni held that mistakes were made in not bringing a larger force at the outset from Lorraine to the Ourcq (two additional corps were sent too late), and in failing to put in the French cavalry at the close of the battle to exploit the victory. The behaviour of the French troops was admirable. German and French authorities criticise the slowness of the British movements, which have not been satisfactorily explained, but may have been due to Sir John French's experiences at Mons and the orders from the British government to act with caution.
Kluck's swift withdrawal west instead of east surprised everyone and necessitated changes in the Allied movements; it was severely blamed by Bulow. Throughout the battle Gallieni employed what cavalry he had to raid the German flank and rear, and the work done in this direction was excellent. The French report the prisoners as being 38,000 with 160 guns (the latter nearly all damaged). The French loss was stated in the Chamber after the war at 300,000, which must include losses in the retreat and in the Lorraine battles of September. The British were only slightly engaged in the Marne proper. Research First Battle of the Marne
Paris Gun was the nickname for the German Kaiser Wilhelm Geschutz Long-range Gun. It was commonly called the 'Paris Gun' from its use to bombard Paris during March to August 1918. The gun was positioned on railway mountings in the Forest of Coucy, 125 km from the city. Seven 21 cm guns were made, using bored-out 38 cm naval guns fitted with special 40 meter long inserted barrels, although for most of the war there were only two mountings so that there were effectively only two guns each with two spare barrels. As the guns wore out, due to the high pressures and temperature of the powder charge, the barrels were removed and re-bored to 24 cm calibre to be used with a fresh outfit of ammunition. The shells weighed 120 kg and were fired by a 180 kg powder charge, giving them a range of up to 131 km. The guns were withdrawn in the face of the Allied advances in August 1918; one spare mounting was captured by American troops near Chateau-Thierry but no gun was ever found by the Allies, during or after the war. Research Paris Gun
Abbreviations
Research Double-Headed Eagle
