Sir Francis Bond Head was a British soldier and writer. He was born in 1793 and died in 1875. He was present at the Battle of Waterloo, being in the royal engineers; in 1825 undertook the working of gold and silver mines in Rio de la Plata; in 1835 became governor of Upper Canada, and in 1838 suppressed the Canadian insurrection, and was made a baronet. He was the author of Bubbles from the Brunnen of Nassau, Rough Notes of Rapid Journeys across the Pampas, A Faggot of French Sticks, The Horse and his Rider, etc. Research Francis Head
The Gauchos are a native people of the Pampas of the La Plata countries in South America. They are descended from the Spanish invaders and are noted for their strong will, independence, horsemanship and skill with a lasso. Research Gauchos
The La Plata was a German-built Argentinean destroyer of 1000 tons displacement launched in 1911. The La Plata carried a complement of 99 and had a top speed of 26.5 knots and a range of 4320 km at 15 knots. She was armed with three 4 inch guns; two 37 mm anti-aircraft guns; four 21-inch torpedo tubes and one depth charge discharger. Research La Plata
The Andes or, as they are called in Spanish South America, Cordilleras De Los Andes, or simply Cordilleras, are a range of mountains stretching along the whole of the west coast of South America, from Cape Horn to the Isthmus of Panama and the Caribbean Sea. In absolute length (7200 km) no single chain of mountains approaches the Andes, and only a certain number of the higher peaks of the Himalayan chain rise higher above the sea level.
The Southern Andes present a lofty main chain, with a minor chain running parallel to it on the east, reaching from Tierra del Fuego and the Straits of Magellan, northward to about latitude 28 degrees south, and rising in Aconcagua to a height of 6868 meters. North of this is the double chain of the Central Andes, inclosing the wide and lofty plateaus of Bolivia and Peru, which lie at an elevation of more than 3650 meters above the sea. The mountain system is here at its broadest, being about 800 km across. Here are also several very lofty peaks, as Illampu or Sorata (6550 meters), Sahama (6417 meters, Illimani (6408 meters). Further north the outer and inner ranges draw closer together, and in Ecuador there is but a single system of elevated masses, generally described as forming two parallel chains. In this section are crowded together a number of lofty peaks, most of them volcanoes, either extinct or active. Of the latter class are Pichincha (4852 meters), with a crater 760 meters deep; Tunguragua (5085 meters); Sangay (5322 meters); and Cotopaxi (5956 meters).
Northward of this section the Andes break into three distinct ranges, the eastmost running north-eastward into Venezuela, the west-most running north-westward to the Isthmus of Panama. In the central range is the volcano of Tolima (5383 meters).
The western slope of the Andes is generally exceedingly steep, the eastern much less so, the mountains sinking gradually to the plains. The whole range gives evidence of volcanic action, but it consists almost entirely of sedimentary rocks. Thus mountains may be found rising to the height of over 6000 meters, and fossiliferous to their summits (as Illimani and Sorata or Illampu). There are about thirty volcanoes in a state of activity. All the districts of the Andes system have suffered severely from earthquakes, towns having been either destroyed or greatly injured by these visitations. Peaks crowned with perpetual snow are seen all along the range, and glaciers are also met with, more especially from Aconcagua southwards. The passes are generally at a great height, the most important being from 3000 meters to 4,500 meters.
The Andes are extremely rich in the precious metals, gold, silver, copper, platinum, mercury, and tin all being wrought:
lead and iron are also found. The llama and its congeners - the guanaco, vicuna, and alpaca are characteristic of the Andes. Among birds, the condor is the most remarkable. The vegetation necessarily varies much according to elevation, latitude, rainfall, etc, but generally is rich and varied. Except in the south and north little rain falls on the western side of the range, and in the centre there is a considerable desert area. On the east side the rainfall is heavy in the equatorial regions, but in the south is very scanty or altogether deficient. From the Andes rise two of the largest water systems of the world - the Amazon and its affluents, and the La Plata and its affluents. Besides which, in the north, from its slopes flow the Magdalena to the Caribbean Sea, and some tributaries to the Orinoco. The mountain chain pressing so close upon the Pacific Ocean, no streams of importance flow from its western slopes. The number of lakes is not great; the largest and most important is that of Titicaca on the Bolivian plateau. In the Andes are towns at a greater elevation than anywhere else in the world, the highest being the silver mining town of Cerro de Pasco at 4350 meters, the next being Potosi.
Argentina or the Argentine Republic (formerly known as the United Provinces of La Plata) is a republic in South America. It has a total area of 2,766,890 km2. The climate is mostly temperate; arid in the south-east; sub-antarctic in the south-west. The terrain comprises the rich plains of the Pampas in the northern half, the flat to rolling plateau of Patagonia in the south and the rugged Andesmountains along the western border. Natural resources are the fertile plains of the pampas, lead, zinc, tin, copper, iron ore, manganese, crude oil and uranium The religion is 90% nominally Roman Catholic (with less than 20% practising), 2% Protestant, 2% Jewish and 6% other The official language is Spanish with English, Italian, German and French also spoken.
As of 1900 most of the vast country of Argentina was very thinly inhabited, some parts of it then still being very little known. The native Indians were never very numerous, and gave little trouble to the European settlers. The European element is strong in the republic, more than half the population being Europeans or of pure European descent. Large numbers of immigrants arrived during the 19th century from Southern Europe, the Italians having the preponderance among those of foreign birth. The typical inhabitants of the pampas were traditionally the Gauchos, a race of half-breed cattle-rearers and horse-breakers; they were almost continually on horseback, galloping over the plains, collecting their herds and droves, taming wild horses, or catching and slaughtering cattle. In such occupations they required a marvellous dexterity in the use of the lasso and bolas.
The river La Plata was discovered in 1512 by the Spanish navigator Juan Diaz de Solis, and the La Plata territory had been brought into the possession of Spain by the end of the sixteenth century. In 1810 the territory cast off the Spanish rule, and in 1816 the independence of the United States of the Rio de la Plata was formally declared, but it was long before a settled government was established. The constitution dates from 1853, being subsequently modified. Research Argentina
Bolivia is a republic in South America. It has a total area of 1,098,580 km2. The climate varies with altitude; humid and tropical to cold and semi-arid. The terrain is comprised of high plateaus, hills, and lowland plains.
Bolivia has long been famed for its mineral wealth, especially silver and gold, the total value of these metals produced between 1545 and 1875 being estimated at nearly 400,000,000 pounds sterling. The annual produce in the 19th century was still several millions sterling in value. Natural resources include tin, natural gas, crude oil, zinc, tungsten, antimony, silver, iron ore, lead, gold and timber. The religion is 95% Roman Catholic with an active Protestant minority, especially Evangelical Methodist. The language is Spanish, Quechua, and Aymara all of which are official.
Bolivia was part of the Inca civilisation until it was conquered by Spain in 1538. Bolivia under the Spaniards long formed part of the viceroyalty of Peru, latterly it was joined to that of La Plata or Buenos Ayres. Its independent history commences with the year 1825, when the republic was founded. As a result of the war with Chile in 1879, Bolivia lost her coastal territory of about 29,000 square miles.
The constitution was drawn up by Simon Bolivar, in whose honour the state was named Bolivia; and was adopted by Congress in 1826. It has since undergone important modifications. The aboriginal inhabitants of Boliviar are the Aymaras and the Quichuas; the larger portion of the population are Mestizos or descendants of the original settlers by native women.
The Federative Republic of Brazil is the largest country in south America. It has a total area of 8,511, 965 km2.
As a whole the country may be regarded as having three natural divisions, namely, one belonging to the basin of the Amazon, another belonging to the La Plata basin, and a third consisting of the eastern portion watered by a number of streams directly entering the Atlantic.
The Amazonvalley is bounded by elevated table-lands which, in the lower course of the river, approach within a comparatively short distance of each other. The characteristic feature of this region is its immense low-lying, forest-covered plains, intersected by innumerable water-courses, and in many parts subject to annual inundation, the vegetation being of the most luxuriant character, from the heat and frequent rains.
The development of a trade in the juice of the india-rubber trees, which grow in vast quantities, attracted thousands of Brazilians from the adjoining provinces to the Amazonvalley and thus has covered thousands of miles of rivers with boats, and spread a population over vast areas that otherwise would have remained dormant.
The southern part of Brazil is characterized by its low plains or pampas, covered with grass or scrub. Its vegetation is of a much less tropical character than in the Amazon basin, and its climate more variable.
The chief mountain ranges are near the south-eastern coast. The Serra do Mar or Maritime range commences in the far south, and travels close to the coast-line in a northeasterly direction until it reaches Rio de Janeiro and Cape Frio, where it culminates in the Serra dos Orgaos, or OrganMountains, from 7000 to 8000 feet above the sea, and forming the noblest element in the marvellous scenery of the bay of Rio de Janeiro. West of the Serra do Mar lies the Serra Mantequeira, which farther north is known as the Serra do Espinhago. Here are the loftiest summits in Brazil, Itatiaia - Assu, the highest of all, being 10,040 feet above the sea. Between the sources of the Tocantins and Parana are the Monies Pyrenees, the second most elevated ridge in Brazil, some of its heights being estimated at nearly 8000 and 10,000 feet above the level of the sea.
As almost the whole of Brazil lies south of the equator, and in a hemisphere where there is a greater proportion of sea than land, its climate is generally more cool and moist than that of countries in corresponding latitudes in the northern hemisphere. In the southern parts of Brazil, in consequence of the gradual narrowing of the continent, the climate is of an insular character - cool summers and mild winters. The quantity of rain differs widely in different localities. The northern provinces generally are subject to heavy rains. At Rio, where the climate has been much modified by the clearing away of the forests in the neighbourhood, the mean temperature of the year is 74 degrees. At Pernambuco the temperature rarely exceeds 82 degrees; in winter it descends to 68 degrees. Generally the climate of Brazil is delightful.
The wild animals comprise the puma, jaguar, sloth, porcupine, etc. Monkeys are numerous. Amongst the feathered tribes are the smallest, the humming-bird, and one of the largest, the rhea, parrots in great variety, tanagers, toucans, and the harpy eagle. The reptiles consist of the boa-constrictor and other species of serpents, some of them venomous, alligators, and fresh-water turtle, the eggs of which yield a valuable oil. The insects are, many of them, remarkable for the beauty of their colours and their size, especially the butterfl ies. Amongst the most notable are the white-ant, very numerous and very destructive, and the scorpion, which attains a length of 15 cm.
Natural resources are iron ore, manganese, bauxite, nickel, uranium, phosphates, tin, hydropower, gold, platinum, crude oil and timber. The religion is 90% Roman Catholic. The official language is Portuguese with Spanish, English and French also spoken.
Brazil was discovered by the Spanish in 1499 and colonised by the Portugese in 1500 and named after the first natural commodity to be exported - brazilwood. The first governor-general was Thome de Sousa, who in 1549 arrived in the Bay of Bahia and established the new city of that name, making it the seat of his government.
The usurpation of the crown of Portugal by Philip II left Brazil in a defenceless and neglected condition, and the English, French, and Dutch made successive attempts to obtain a footing. The Dutch were the most persevering, and for a time almost divided the Brazilian territory with the Portuguese. The tyranny of the Dutch governors, however, incited their native and Portuguese subjects to revolt, and after a sanguinary war, in 1654 the Dutch were driven out and the Portuguese remained masters of an undivided Brazil.
The value of Brazil to Portugal continued steadily to increase after the discovery of the gold mines in 1698 and the discovery of the diamond mines in 1728. The vigorous policy of the Portuguese government under the administration of the Marquis de Pombal (1760-77) did much to open up the interior of Brazil, though his high-handed-modes of procedure left amongst the Brazilians a discontent with the home government which took shape in the abortive revolt of 1789.
On the invasion of Portugal in 1808 by the French the sovereign of that kingdom, John VI, sailed for Brazil, accompanied by his court and a large body of emigrants. He raised Brazil to the rank of a kingdom, and assumed the title of King of Portugal and Brazil. But on his return to Portugal in 1820 he found the Portuguese Cortes unwilling to grant civil and political equality to the Brazilians - a fact which raised such violent convulsions in Rio Janeiro and other parts of Brazil that Dom Pedro, the king's son, was forced to head the party resolved to make Brazil independent, and in 1822 a national assembly declared the separation of Brazil from Portugal, and appointed Dom Pedro the constitutional emperor.
In 1864 began a severe struggle between Brazil and Paraguay, caused principally by the arbitrary conduct of Lopez, the dictator of Paraguay. Brazil, though joined by Uruguay and the Argentine Confederation, had to bear the brunt of the war, which terminated only with the death of Lopez in 1870. This struggle was attended with an immense expenditure of men and money to Brazil, but it established her reputation as a great power, and secured the freedom of the navigation of the La Plata river-system. In 1871 an act was passed for the gradual emancipation of slaves, and in 1888 slavery was finally abolished. In 1889 took place the revolution and establishment of the republic. The proceedings of the president, Fonseca, led to a revolutionary movement in 1891, which was not quelled without difficulty. In 1899 Brazil formed a republic.
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