Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester, was an Elizabethan courtier and English soldier. He was born in 1532 and died in 1588. He was introduced to court life at an early age, and was companion to Edward VI and PrincessElizabeth, and in 1550 married the ill-fated Amy Robsart. On Edward's decease he promoted the claims of his sister-in-law, Lady Jane Grey, as queen, was brought to trial, but ultimately pardoned. With Elizabeth's accession his influence increased. He was considered by many as a lover of the Queen, who made him an earl in 1564. Research Earl of Leicester
Edward VI was king of England from 1547 to 1553. He was born in 1537 at Hampton Court and died in 1553. He was the son of Henry VIII by Jane Seymour. Being only nine at his accession a council of regency was formed under his uncle the Earl of Hertford. Edward VI was intellectually precocious (fluent in Greek and Latin, he kept a full journal of his reign) but not physically robust. His short reign was dominated by nobles using the Regency to strengthen their own positions. The King's Council, previously dominated by Henry, succumbed to existing factionalism. On Henry's death, Edward Seymour, Earl of Hertford and soon to be Duke of Somerset, the new King's eldest uncle, became Protector. Edward Seymour was an able soldier; he led a punitive expedition against the Scots, for their failure to fulfil their promise to betroth Mary, Queen of Scots to Edward, which led to Edward Seymour's victory at the Battle of Pinkie Cleugh in 1547 - although he failed to follow this up with satisfactory peace terms.
During Edward VI's reign, the Church of England became more explicitly Protestant - Edward VI himself was fiercely Protestant. The Book of Common Prayer was introduced in 1549, aspects of Roman Catholic practices (including statues and stained glass) were eradicated and the marriage of clergy allowed. The imposition of the Prayer Book (which replaced Latin services with English) led to rebellions in Cornwall and Devon.
Despite his military ability, Edward Seymour was too liberal to deal effectively with Kett's rebellion against land enclosures in Norfolk. Edward Seymour was left isolated in the Council and the Duke of Northumberland subsequently overthrew him in 1551. Edward Seymour was executed in 1552, an event which was briefly mentioned by Edward VI in his diary: 'Today, the Duke of Somerset had his head cut off on Tower Hill.'
Northumberland took greater trouble to charm and influence Edward VI; his powerful position as Lord President of the Council was based on his personal ascendancy over the King. However, the young King was ailing. Northumberland hurriedly married his son Lord Guilford Dudley to Lady Jane Grey, one of Henry VIII's great-nieces and a claimant to the throne. Edward VI accepted Lady Jane Grey as his heir and, on his death from tuberculosis in 1553, Lady Jane Grey assumed the throne. Research Edward VI
Elizabeth I was queen of England from 1558 to 1603. She was born in 1533 at Greenwich and died in 1603. Elizabeth I was the daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn. Almost immediately after her birth, Elizabeth was declared heiress to the crown. After her mother had been beheaded in 1536, both Elizabeth and her sister Mary were declared bastards, and she was finally placed after Prince Edward and the Lady Mary in the order of succession.
On the accession of Edward VIElizabeth was committed to the care of the queen-dowager Catherine; and after the death of Catherine and beheadal of her consort Thomas Seymour she was closely watched at Hatfield,where she received a classical education under William Grindal and Roger Ascliam. At the death of Edward VIElizabeth vigorously supported the title of Mary against the pretensions of Lady Jane Grey, but continued throughout the whole reign an object of suspicion and surveillance. In self-defence she made every demonstration of zealous adherence to the Roman Catholic faith, but her inclinations were well known. On the 17th of November, 1558, Mary's reign came to a close, and Elizabeth was immediately recognized queen by parliament.
The accuracy of Elizabeth's judgment showed itself in her choice of advisers, Parker, a moderate divine (Archbishop of Canterbury 1559), aiding her in ecclesiastical policy; while William Cecil, LordBurleigh, assisted her in foreign affairs. The first great object of her reign was the settlement of religion, to effect which a parliament was called on the 25th of January, and dissolved on the 8th of May, its object having been accomplished - the return of England to Protestantism, the royal supremacy asserted, and the revised prayer-book enforced by the Act of Uniformity. Freed from the tyranny of Mary's reign the Puritans began to claim predominance for their own dogmas, while the supporters of the Established Church were unwilling to grant them even liberty of worship. The Puritans, therefore, like the Catholics, were made irreconcilable enemies of the existing order, and increasingly stringent measures were adopted agsinst them. But the struggle against the Catholics was the most severe, chiefly because they were supported by foreign powers; so that while their religion was wholly prohibited, even exile was forbidden them, in order to prevent their intrigues abroad. Many Catholics, particularly priests, suffered death during this reign; but simple nonconformity, from whatever cause, was pursued with the severest penalties, and many more clergymen were driven out of the church by differences about the position of altars, the wearing of caps, and such like matters, than were forced to resign by the change from Rome to Reformation.
Elizabeth's first parliament approached her on a subject which, next to religion, was the chief trouble of her reign, the succession to the crown. They requested her to marry, but she declared her intention to live and die a virgin; and she consistently declined in the course of her life such suitors as the Duc d'Alencon, Prince Erik of Sweden, the Archduke Charles of Austria, and Philip of Spain. While, however, she felt that she could best maintain her power by remaining unmarried, she knew how to temporize with suitors for political ends, and showed the greatest jealousy of all pretenders to the English succession.
With the unfortunate Mary, queen of Scots, were connected many of the political events of Elizabeth's reign. On her accession the country was at war with France. Peace was easily concluded in 1559; but the assumption by Francis and Mary of the royal arms and titles of England led to an immediate interference on the part of Elizabeth in the affairs of Scotland. She entered into a league with the Lords of the Congregation, or leaders of the Reformed party; and throughout her reign this party was frequently serviceable in furthering her policy. She also gave early support to the Huguenot party in France, and to the Protestants in the Netherlands, so that throughout Europe she was looked on as the head of the Protestant party. This policy roused the inplacable resentment of Philip, who strove in turn to excite the Catholics against her both in her own dominions and in Scotland.
Mary, Queen of Scots, threatened by rebellion in Scotland, fled to England only to be mprisoned by Elizabeth I in 1567 and this led to a series of conspiracies, beginning with that under the Earls of Northumberland and Westmoreland, and ending with the plot of Babington, which finally determined Elizabeth to make away with her captive. The execution of Queen Mary in 1587, though it has stained her name to posterity, tended to confirm her power among her contemporaries and led to outright war with Spain. In 1588 Philip of Spain's invasion fleet, the ' Armada', was defeated. There were two further Armadas in the 1590s, and an Irish revolt in 1595, assisted by Spain, which was eventually put down in 1601. The financial strains caused by the war against Spain (made worse by poor harvests) meant that Elizabeth did not try to put the Crown on a permanently solvent basis. In addition to sharp debates over revenue-raising measures such as monopolies, Parliament continued its pressure on the Queen to deal with the question of the succession.
During her reign the splendour of her government at home and abroad was sustained by such men as Burleigh, Bacon, Walsingham, and Throgmorton; but she had personal favourites of less merit who were often more brilliantly rewarded. Chief of these were Dudley, whom she created Earl of Leicester, and whom she was disposed to marry, and Essex, whose violent passions brought about his ruin. He was beheaded in 1601, but Elizabeth never forgave herself his death. Her own health soon after gave way and she died on the 24th of March, 1603, naming James VI of Scotland as her successor.
To Queen Elizabeth I may be traced the origins of the English colonisation of North America .In 1578 she granted to Sir Humphrey Gilbert letters patent to conquer and possess any heathen lands not already in the hands of Christians. Humphrey Gilbert's expedition failed, but in 1584 Elizabeth granted a similar charter to Walter Raleigh. In 1585, with the Queen's assistance, Walter Raleigh sent seven vessels and 100 colonists to settle in Virginia, which had been taken in the Queen's name under the charter of 1584 and named by Elizabeth. In 1603 Gosnold named one of the Elizabeth Islands for her. Research Elizabeth I
Henry Bullinger was a Swiss reformer. He was born in 1504 and died in 1575. He was the intimate friend of Zuinglius, whom he succeeded in 1531 as pastor of Zurich. He kept up a close correspondence with the principal English reformers. The Zurich Letters, published by the Parker Society, contains part of this correspondence, and among others, letters addressed to him by Lady Jane Grey. He wrote numerous theological works. Research Henry Bullinger
Sir John Cheke was an English scholar. He was born in 1514 at Cambridge and died in 1557. He was educated at St John's College, and made regius professor of Greek. In 1544 he was appointed tutor to the future Edward VI, and appears likewise to have assisted in the education of the PrincessElizabeth I. On the accession of Edward VI he received substantial signs of favour, was knighted, became secretary of state in 1553, and was also a privy-councillor. On the king's death he supported Lady Jane Grey, and was committed to the Tower. After a few months, however, he was set at liberty, and settled in Strasburg; but his connection with the English Protestantchurch there gave offence to the Catholics in England, and his estates were confiscated. He supported himself by teaching Greek, but in 1556, having been induced to visit Brussels, he was arrested by order of Philip II and sent prisoner to England. Under threat of the stake he recanted, and received the equivalent of his forfeited estates; but he felt so keenly his degradation that he died of grief in 1557. His chief distinction was the impulse given by him to the study of Greek. Research John Cheke
John Dudley was Duke of Northumberland. He was born in 1502 and died in 1553. The son of Sir Edmund Dudley, minister of Henry VII he was left by Henry VIII one of the executors named in his will, as a kind of joint-regent during the minority of Edward VI. Under that prince he manifested the most insatiable ambition, and obtained vast accessions of honours, power, and emoluments. The illness of the king, over whom he had gained complete ascendency, aroused his fears, and he endeavoured to strengthen hia interest by marrying his son LordGuildford Dudley to Lady Jane Grey, descended from the younger sister of Henry VIII, and persuaded Edward to settle the crown on his kinswoman by will, to the exclusion of his two sisters, the Princesses Mary and Elizabeth. The death of the king, the abortive attempts to place Lady Jane Grey on the throne, and the ruin of all those concerned in the scheme, are among the most familiar events in the annals of England. Research John Dudley
Lady Jane Grey was a Queen of England. She was born in 1537 and died in 1554. The daughter of Henry Grey, marquis of Dorset, afterwards duke of Suffolk, by Frances, daughter of Charles Brandon, duke of Suffolk, and Mary, younger sister of Henry VIII. She displayed much precocity of talent; and under the tuition of Aylmer, afterwards bishop of London, she acquired a knowledge of the learned languages, as well as French and Italian. She was married to LordGuildford Dudley, fourth son of the Duke of Northumberland, in 1553. Edward VI, who died in 1553, was induced on his death-bed to settle on her the succession to the crown. The council endeavoured to keep his death secret, with a view to secure the persons of the princesses, Mary and Elizabeth, and when Mary discovered the design the council proclaimed Lady Jane Grey queen. On the approach of Mary, however, the council deserted Lady Jane, and Mary was proclaimed queen. Jane was now confined to the Tower. She and her husband were arraigned, and pleaded guilty of high treason; but their doom was suspended, and it was not until after the suppression of the rebellion of Sir Thomas Wyatt, in which the Duke of Suffolk, Lady Jane's father, had participated, that the sentence was executed. She was beheaded on Tower Hill on February the 12th, 1554, her husband having previously suffered the same day. Research Lady Jane Grey
Paul Delaroche (real name Hippolyte Delaroche) was a French painter. He was born in 1797 and died in 1856. He studied landscape-painting for a short time, but applied himself afterwards to historical painting, and rapidly rose to eminence. His subjects are principally taken from French and English history. Among others may be mentioned: St. Vincent de Paul preaching before Louis XIII on behalf of Deserted Children; Joan of Arc interrogated in Prison by CardinalBeaufort; the Death of Queen Elizabeth, a work greatly admired by French and generally reprobated by English critics; A scene of the St. Bartholomew Massacre; The Children of Edward IV. in the Tower; CardinalRichelieu conducting Cinq Mars and De Thou up the Rhone to Execution; Charles I mocked by his guards; Cromwell contemplating the Dead Body of Charles I;
the Execution of Lady Jane Grey; the Death of the Duke of Guise; and the Hemicycle, an immense work painted in oil on the wall of the Ecole des Beaux Arts, Paris. It represents an assemblage of the great painters, sculptors, and architects from the' days of Giotto to those of Lesueur, and has been admirably engraved by Dupont. His merits consist in correct drawing, appropriate expression, harmonious colour, and great distinctness and perspicuity in treatment, rendering the story of his pictures at once intelligible. He held a middle place be-tween the classical and the romantic schools, and was regarded as the leader of the so-called 'eclectic school.' Research Paul Delaroche
Thomas Cranmer was archbishop of Canterbury under Henry VIII. He was born in 1489 at Aslacton, Nottinghamshire and died in 1556 when he was burnt at the stake for refusing to revert his religion under Mary. He was famous for the part he played in the English reformation during the reign of Henry VIII. He entered as a student of Jesus College, Cambridge, in 1503, took the degree of MA, obtained a fellowship, and in 1523 was chosen reader of theological lectures in his college, and examiner of candidates for degrees in divinity.
An opinion which he gave on the question of Henry VIII's proposed divorce from Catharine brought him under the favourable notice of the king. Thomas Cranmer was sent for to court, made a king's chaplain, and commanded to write a treatise on the subject of the divorce. In 1530 he was sent abroad with others to collect the opinions of the divines and canonists of France, Italy, and Germany, on the validity of the king's marriage. At Rome he presented his treatise to the pope, but his mission was fruitless.
In January, 1533, he was appointed Archbishop of Canterbury. Soon after he set the Papal authority at defiance by pronouncing sentence of divorce between Henry VIII and Catharine, and confirming the king's marriage with Anne Boleyn. The pope threatened excommunication, and an act of parliament was immediately passed for abolishing the pope's supremacy, and declaring the king chief head of the Church of England. The archbishop zealously promoted the cause of the Reformation; and through his means the Bible was translated and read in churches, and monastic institutions were vigorously suppressed.
In 1536 he pandered to Henry VIII's passions by promoting tlie divorce of Anne Boleyn. This and other services secured him in the king's favour, who appointed him by will one of the council of regency to Edward VI. By his instrumentality the liturgy was drawn up and established by act of parliament, and articles of religion were compiled, the validity of which was enforced by royal authority, and for which infallibility was claimed.
The exclusion of the Princess Mary from the crown, by the will of her brother, was a measure in which Thomas Cranmer joined the partisans of Lady Jane Grey, apparently in opposition to his own judgment. With others who had been most active in Lady Jane Grey's favour he was sent to the Tower on the accession of Mary. He was tried on charges of blasphemy, perjury, incontinence, and heresy, and was sentenced to be degraded and deprived of office. After this flattering promises were made, which induced him to sign a recantation of his alleged errors, and become, in fact, a Catholic convert. But when he was brought into St Mary'sChurch, Oxford, to read his recantation in public, instead of confessing the justness of his sentence, and submitting to it in silence or imploring mercy, he calmly acknowledged that the fear of death had made him belie his conscience; and declared that nothing could afford him consolation but the prospect of extenuating his guilt by encountering, as a Protestant penitent, with firmness and resignation, the fiery torments which awaited him. He was immediately hurried to the stake, where he behaved with the resolution of a martyr. Research Thomas Cranmer
The Probert Encyclopaedia was designed, edited and programed by
Matt and Leela Probert
Abbreviations
Research Earl of Leicester
